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44 Cards in this Set

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allegory
The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal
meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or
freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.
allusion
– A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place,
or work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical. There are many more possibilities, and
a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion.
ambiguity
The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage
analogy
A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An analogy can explain
something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. Analogies can also
make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging.
antecedent
The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam occasionally asks for the antecedent of
a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences. A question from the 2001 AP test as an example
follows:
“But it is the grandeur of all truth which can occupy a very high place in human interests that it is never
absolutely novel to the meanest of minds; it exists eternally, by way of germ of latent principle, in the lowest as
in the highest, needing to be developed but never to be planted.”
The antecedent of “it” (bolded) is...? [answer: “all truth”]
antithesis
the opposition or contrast of ideas; the direct opposite.
aphorism
– A terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (If the authorship is
unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the
author’s point.
apostrophe
– A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty
or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The effect may add familiarity or emotional
intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, “Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: /
England hath need of thee.” Another example is Keats’ “Ode to a Grecian Urn,” in which Keats addresses the urn itself:
“Thou still unravished bride of quietness.” Many apostrophes imply a personification of the object addressed.
clause
A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a complete
thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate clause, cannot stand alone as a sentence and must
be accompanied by an independent clause. The point that you want to consider is the question of what or why the author
subordinates one element should also become aware of making effective use of subordination in your own writing.
conceit
A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar
objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness as a result of the unusual comparison being made.
denotation
The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color. (Example: the denotation
of a knife would be a utensil used to cut; the connotation of a knife might be fear, violence, anger, foreboding, etc.)
diction
Related to style, diction refers to the writer’s word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or
effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author’s diction (for example, formal or informal,
ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author’s purpose. Diction, combined with
syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author’s style.
euphemism
euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally
unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to
add humor or ironic understatement. Saying “earthly remains” rather than “corpse” is an example of euphemism.
extended metaphor
– A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work.
kinds of figures of speech
apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement
generic conventions
This term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to define each genre; for example,
they differentiate an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing. On the AP language exam,
try to distinguish the unique features of a writer’s work from those dictated by convention
homily
This term literally means “sermon,” but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving
moral or spiritual advice.
hyperbole
– A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. (The literal Greek meaning is “overshoot.”)
Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony. The
opposite of hyperbole is understatement.
invective
an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language. (For example, in Henry IV, Part
I, Prince Hal calls the large character of Falstaff “this sanguine coward, this bedpresser, this horseback breaker, this huge
hill of flesh.”)
litotes
a form of understatement that involves making an affirmative point by denying its
opposite. Litote is the opposite of hyperbole. Examples: “Not a bad idea,” “Not many,” “It isn’t very serious. I have this
tiny little tumor on the brain” (Salinger, Catcher in the Rye).
loose sentence
A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by
dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause,
the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, or
conversational. Generally, loose sentences create loose style. The opposite of a loose sentence is the periodic sentence.
Example: I arrived at the San Diego airport after a long, bumpy ride and multiple delays.
Could stop at: I arrived at the San Diego airport.
metaphor
A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other,
suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and
meaningful.
metonymy
A term from the Greek meaning “changed label” or “substitute name,” metonymy is a figure of speech
in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. For example, a news release
that claims “the White House declared” rather than “the President declared” is using metonymy; Shakespeare uses it to
signify the male and female sexes in As You Like It: “doublet and hose ought to show itself courageous to petticoat.” The
substituted term generally carries a more potent emotional impact.
paradox
A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains
some degree of truth or validity. (Think of the beginning of Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities: “It was the best of times, it was
the worst of times....”)
parallelism
Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning “beside one
another.” It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural
similarity. This can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal
phrase. (Again, the opening of Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities is an example: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of
times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of believe, it was the epoch of
incredulity....”) The effects of parallelism are numerous, but frequently they act as an organizing force to attract the
reader’s attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm.
anaphora
A sub-type of parallelism, when the exact repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of successive lines
or sentences. MLK used anaphora in his famous “I Have a Dream” speech (1963).
pendantic
An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish (language that
might be described as “show-offy”; using big words for the sake of using big words).
periodic sentence
The opposite of loose sentence, a sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This
independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone. The effect of a periodic sentence is to add
emphasis and structural variety. It is also a much stronger sentence than the loose sentence. (Example: After a long,
bumpy flight and multiple delays, I arrived at the San Diego airport.)
rhetorical modes
This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. The
four most common rhetorical modes (often referred to as “modes of discourse”) are as follows:
(1) The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea,
relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. The AP language exam essay questions are frequently expository
topics.
(2) The purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning,
discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having
an additional aim of urging some form of action.
(3) The purpose of description is to recreate, invent, or visually present a person, place, event or action so that the reader
can picture that being described. Sometimes an author engages all five senses in description; good descriptive
writing can be sensuous and picturesque. Descriptive writing may be straightforward and objective or highly
emotional an subjective.
(4) The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses
the tools of descriptive writing.
semantics
– The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and psychological development, their
connotations, and their relation to one another.
subject complement
The word (with any accompanying phrases) or clause that follows a linking verb and complements, or
completes, the subject of the sentence by either (1) renaming it (the predicate nominative) or (2) describing it (the
predicate adjective). These are defined below:
(1) the predicate nominative – a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject. It, like the
predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence.
Example: Julia Roberts is a movie star.
movie star = predicate nominative, as it renames the subject, Julia Roberts
(2) the predicate adjective -- an adjective, a group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking verb.
It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies, or describes, the subject.
Example: Warren remained optimistic.
optimistic = predicate adjective, as it modifies the subject, Warren
subordinate clause
Like all clauses, this word group contains both a subject and a verb (plus any accompanying phrases or
modifiers), but unlike the independent clause, the subordinate clause cannot stand alone; it does not express a complete
thought. Also called a dependent clause, the subordinate clause depends on a main clause (or independent clause) to
complete its meaning. Easily recognized key words and phrases usually begin these clauses. For example: although,
because, unless, if, even though, since, as soon as, while, who, when, where, how and that.
Example: Yellowstone is a national park in the West that is known for its geysers.
underlined phrase = subordinate clause
syllogism
From the Greek for “reckoning together,” a syllogism (or syllogistic reasoning or syllogistic logic) is a deductive
system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first one called “major” and the second called “minor”) that
inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. A frequently cited example proceeds as follows:
major premise: All men are mortal.
minor premise: Socrates is a man.
conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is a mortal.
A syllogism’s conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid. Syllogisms may also present the specific idea
first (“Socrates”) and the general second (“all men”).
synecdoche
– a figure of speech in which a part of something is used to represent the whole or, occasionally, the whole is used to
represent a part. Examples: To refer to a boat as a “sail”; to refer to a car as “wheels”; to refer to the violins, violas, etc.
in an orchestra as “the strings.” **Different than metonymy, in which one thing is represented by another thing that is
commonly physically associated with it (but is not necessarily a part of it), i.e., referring to a monarch as “the crown” or
the President as “The White House.”
synesthesia
when one kind of sensory stimulus evokes the subjective experience of another. Ex: The sight of red ants makes
you itchy. In literature, synesthesia refers to the practice of associating two or more different senses in the same image.
Red Hot Chili Peppers’ song title,“Taste the Pain,” is an example.
syntax
The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is similar to diction, but you can
differentiate them by thinking of syntax as groups of words, while diction refers to the individual words. In the multiplechoice
section of the AP exam, expect to be asked some questions about how an author manipulates syntax. In the essay
section, you will need to analyze how syntax produces effects.
abstract language
expressing a quality apart from a specific object or event
ad hominem
against the man attacking the arguer rather than the arument
ad populum
to the people playing on the prejudices of the audience
begging the question
making a statement that assumes that the issue is being argued has already been decided
non sequitur
irrelevant proof to buttress a claim
warrant
a general principal or assumption which establishes a connection between the support and the claim
claim
what the arguer is attempting to prove
simile
using like or as to describe something