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96 Cards in this Set

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ad hominem argument
From the Latin meaning “to or against the man,” this is an argument that appeals to emotion rather than reason, to feeling rather than intellect.
allegory
the device of using character and / or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.
alliteration
the repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in “she sells sea shells”). The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, and/or supply a musical sound.
allusion
a direct or indirect reference to something that is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art. They can be historical (like referring to Hitler), literary (like referring to Kurtz in The Heart of Darkness), religious (like referring to Noah and the flood), or mythical (like referring to Atlas). There are, of course, many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion.
ambiguity
the multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.
analogy
a similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. It can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with, or pointing out its similarity to, something more familiar. It can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, and intellectually engaging.
anecdote
a short account of an interesting event.
antecedent
the word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The exam occasionally asks for this for a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences.
antimetabole
the repetition of words in an inverted order to sharpen a contrast.
antithesis
a figure of speech involving a seeming contradiction of ideas, words, clauses, or sentences within a balanced grammatical structure. The resulting parallelism serves to emphasize opposition of ideas. The familiar phrase, “man proposes, God disposes” is an example, as is John Dryden's description in The Hind and the Panther: “Too black for heaven, and yet too white for hell.”
aphorism
a terse statement of known authorship that expresses a general truth or moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) It can be a memorable summation of the author's point.
apostrophe
a figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, “Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: England hath need of thee.
appositive
a word or phrase that renames a nearby noun or pronoun.
argumentation
this rhetorical mode's purpose is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning, thoughtful discussion, and insightful commentary that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is one type.
Aristotelian triangle
a diagram that represents a rhetorical situation as the relationship among the speaker, the subject, and the audience.
asyndeton
leaving out conjunctions between words, phrases, and clauses.
atmosphere
the emotional mood created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the author's choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as a description of the weather can contribute to this. Frequently, it foreshadows events.
caricature
a representation, especially pictorial or literary, in which the subject's distinctive features or peculiarities are deliberately exaggerated to produce a comic or grotesque effect. Sometimes it can be so exaggerated that it can become a grotesque imitation or misrepresentation.
chiasmus
a figure of speech based on inverted parallelism. It is a rhetorical figure in which two clauses are related to each other through a reversal of terms. The purpose is usually to make a larger point or to provide balance or order. In classical rhetoric, the parallel structures did not repeat words, such as found in Alexander Pope's Essay on Man: “His time a moment, and a point his space.” However, contemporary standards allow for repeated words. An example comes from John F. Kennedy's inaugural address: “ask not what your country can do for you – ask what you can do for your country.”
clause
a grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. One type expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. Another type cannot stand alone as a sentence.
colloquialism
lang or informality in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, it gives work a conversational, familiar tone. Expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.
conceit
a fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. It displays intellectual cleverness due to the unusual comparison being made.
connotation
the nonliteral, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. These may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes.
context
words, events, or circumstances that help determine meaning.
coordination
grammatical equivalence between parts of a sentence, often through a coordinating conjunction such as and or but.
declarative sentence
a sentence that makes a statement.
denotation
the strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color.
description
a rhetorical mode that serves to re-create, invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or action so that the reader can picture it. Sometimes an author engages all five senses; it can be sensuous and picturesque. This may be straightforward and objective or highly emotional and subjective.
diction
related to style, this refers to the writer's word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. You should be able to describe this and understand the ways in which it can complement the author's purpose. Combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, and so on, develops an author's style.
didactic
from the Greek, it means “instructive.” These works have the primary aim of instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles.
euphemism
from the Greek meaning “good speech,” these are more agreeable or less offensive substitutes for generally unpleasant words or concepts. This may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness, or to add humor or ironic understatement. Saying “earthly remains” instead of “corpse” is an example.
ethos
a rhetorical appeal that establishes credibility in the speaker. Since by definition this means the common attitudes, beliefs, and characteristics of a group or time period, this appeal sets up believability in the writer. He or she is perceived as someone who can be trusted and is concerned with the reader's best interests.
exposition
this rhetorical mode's purpose is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion.
extended metaphor
eveloped at great length and occurring frequently in or throughout a work as a figurative device.
figurative language
writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid.
figure of speech
many of these compare dissimilar things. They include, for example, apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synechdoche, and understatement.
generic conventions
this term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to define each genre. For example they differentiate between an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing.
genre
the major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, this is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions; for example, prose can be divided into fiction or nonfiction. Poetry can be divided into such subcategories as lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, and so on. Drama can be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, etc.
homily
this term literally means “sermon,” but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.
hyperbole
a figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. They often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, this produces irony at the same time.
imagery
the sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical level, this uses terms related to the five senses; we refer to visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, or olfactory types. On a broader or deeper level, this can represent more than one thing. An author may use this while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile.
imperative sentence
a sentence that requests or commands.
induction
reasoning from specific to general.
inference
to draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a multiple choice question asks for this, the most direct, most reasonable one is the safest answer choice. Note that if the answer choice is not directly stated, it does not fit this term.
invective
an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language.
inversion
a sentence in which the verb precedes the subject.
irony
the contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant; the difference between what appears to be and what actually is true. This is used for many reasons, but frequently, it's used to create poignancy or humor. There are three major types: verbal, situational, and dramatic.
juxtaposition
placing dissimilar items, descriptions, or ideas close together or side by side, especially for comparison or contrast.
litotes
a figure of speech by which an affirmation is made indirectly by denying its opposite. It uses understatement for emphasis, frequently with a negative assertion.
logos
a rhetorical appeal that employs logical reasoning, combining a clear idea (or multiple ideas) with a well-thought-out and appropriate examples and details.
loose (cumulative) sentence
a type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many often seems informal, relaxed, and conversational.
meiosis
the Greek term for understatement or belittling; a rhetorical figure by which something is referred to in terms less important than it really deserves. It describes something that is very impressive with simplicity. For example, when Mercutio calls his mortal wound a “scratch” in
Romeo and Juliet.
metaphor
a figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity. This language makes writing more in vivid, imaginative, thought-provoking, and meaningful.
metonymy
a term from the Greek meaning “changed label” or “substitute name,” this is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. A news release that claims “the White House declared” rather than “the President declared” is an example.
mood
the prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can effect this.
narration
a rhetorical mode that serves to tell a story or explain an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses tools of descriptive writing.
narrative
the telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events.
onomatopoeia
a figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words. Simple examples include such words as buzz, hiss, crack, whinny, and murmur.
oxymoron
from the Greek for “pointedly foolish,” this is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox.
paradox
a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense, but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity.
parallelism
the term comes from Greek roots meaning “beside one another.” It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. The effects of this are numerous, but, frequently, they act as an organizing force to attract the reader's attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a pleasing, musical rhythm.
parody
a work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and / or ridicule. As comedy, this distorts or exaggerates distinctive features of the original. As ridicule, it mimics the work by repeating and borrowing words, phrases, or characteristics in order to illuminate weaknesses in the original. Usually an audience must grasp literary allusion and understand the work being parodied in order to fully appreciate the nuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, parodies take on a life of their own and don't require knowledge of the original.
pathos
a rhetorical appeal that plays on the reader's emotions and interests. A sympathetic audience is more likely to accept a writer's assertions, so this appeal draws upon that understanding and uses it to the writer's advantage.
pedantic
an adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish.
periodic sentence
a sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone. The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis and structural variety.
persona
the speaker, voice, or character assumed by the author of a piece of writing.
personification
a figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions. This is used to make these abstractions, animals, or objects appear more vivid to the reader.
point of view
in literature, the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general divisions of this, and many subdivisions within those. When you are asked to analyze this, address the author's attitude.
polysyndeton
the deliberate use of a series of conjunctions.
predicate adjectives
this modifies or describes the subject and is in the predicate part of the sentence. For example, in the sentence, “My boyfriend is tall, dark, and handsome,” the group of this term (“tall, dark, and handsome”) describes “boyfriend.”
predicate nominative
a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject. It follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence. For example, in the sentence “Abe Lincoln was a man of integrity,” this is “man of integrity” as it renames Abe Lincoln.
prose
One of the major divisions of genre, this refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms, because they are written in ordinary language and most closely resemble everyday speech. Technically, this term applies to anything that isn't poetry or drama.
repetition
the duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern. When this is poorly done, it bores, but when it is well done, it links and emphasizes ideas while allowing the reader the comfort of recognizing something familiar.
rhetoric
from the Greek for “orator,” this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.
rhetorical appeal
the persuasive device by which a writer tries to sway the audience's attention and response to any given work. Three of these were defined by Aristotle.
rhetorical modes
this flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. There are four that are most common.
rhetorical question
a question that is asked merely for effect and does not expect a reply. The answer is assumed.
sarcasm
from the Greek meaning “to tear flesh,” this involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements fit this term. When well done, it can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it's simply cruel.
satire
a work that targets human vices and follies, or social institutions and conventions, for reform or ridicule. Regardless of whether or not the work aims to reform humans or their society, this is best seen as a style of writing rather than a purpose for writing. The effects are varied, depending on the writer's goal, but it is often thought-provoking and insightful about the human condition.
simile
an explicit comparison, normally using “like,” “as,” “if,” or “than.” For example, Robert Burns's famous lines, “O, my love is like a red, red rose.”
straw man
a logical fallacy that involves the creation of an easily refutable position; misrepresenting, then attacking an opponent's position.
style
the consideration of this term has two purposes. First, it is an evaluation of the sum of choices the author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices. Some are so idiosyncratic that we can quickly recognize works by the same author. We can analyze and describe an author and make judgments on how appropriate it is to the author's purpose. Second, it can be a classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors.
subject complement
the word (with any accompanying phrases) or clause that follows a linking verb and complements, or completes, what the sentence is about by either (1) renaming it or (2) describing it.
subordinate clause
this word group contains both a subject and a verb (plus any accompanying phrases or modifiers), but unlike the independent clause, this cannot stand alone; it does not express a complete thought.
syllogism
from the Greek for “reckoning together,” this is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises – the first one called “major” and the second “minor” - that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. For example: All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
symbol
generally, anything that represents or stands for something else. Usually, it is something concrete – such as an object, action, character, or scene – that represents something more abstract. One system classifies these in three categories: natural (which use objects and occurrences form nature to represent ideas commonly associated with them), conventional (those that have been invested with meaning by a group), or literary (ones that are found in a variety of works and generally recognized).
syntax
the way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. This is similar to diction but refers to groups of words. Consider elements such as the length or brevity of sentences, unusual sentence constructions, sentence patterns, and kinds of sentences.
synthesize
combining or bringing together two or more elements to produce something more complex.
theme
the central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life. Usually, this is unstated in fictional works, but in nonfiction it may be directly stated.
thesis
in expository writing, this is a sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the author's opinion, purpose, meaning, or proposition. Expository writing is usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively, and thoroughly a writer has proven this.
tone
similar to mood, this describes the author's attitude toward his or her material, the audience, or both. This is easier to determine in spoken language than in written language. This can rarely be described with one word.
transition
a word or phrase that links different ideas. Used especially, although not exclusively, in expository and argumentative writing, these effectively signal a shift from one idea to another.
understatement
the ironic minimizing of fact, this presents something as less significant than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous and emphatic. This is the opposite of hyperbole. Two specific types are litotes and meiosis.
voice
In rhetoric, a distinctive quality in the style and tone of writing.
wit
in modern usage, it is intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights. A statement that uses this is humorous, while suggesting the speaker's verbal power in creating ingenious and perceptive remarks. It usually uses terse language that makes a pointed statement.
zeugma
a construction in which one word (usually a verb) modifies or governs – often in different, sometimes incongruent ways – two or more words in a sentence.