Ap Language And Composition

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ad hominem argument

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From the Latin meaning "to or against the man," this is an argument that appeals to emotion rather than reason, to feeling rather than intellect.

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allegory

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The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.

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alliteration

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Repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, and/or supply a musical sound.

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allusion

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A direct or indirect reference to something that is presumably common known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art.

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ambiguity

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The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, or a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.

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analogy

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A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with, or pointing out its similarity to, something more familiar.

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antecedent

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The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP Language exam occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or group of sentences.

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antithesis

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A figure of speech involving a seeming contradiction of ideas, words, clauses, or sentences within a balanced grammatical structure. The resulting parallelism serves to emphasize opposition of ideas. Example: John Dryden's description is The Hind and the Panther - "Too black for heaven, and yet too white for hell."

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aphorism

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A terse statement of known authorship that expresses a general truth or moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author's point.

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apostrophe

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A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or personified abstraction, such as liberty or love.

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atmosphere

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The emotional mood created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the author's choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as the description of weather can contribute to the atmosphere. Atmosphere frequently foreshadows events.

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chiasmus

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A figure of speech based on inverted parallelism. It is a rhetorical figure in which two clauses are related to each another through a reversal of terms. The purpose is usually to make a larger point or to provide balance or order. Example JFK's inaugural address: "... ask not what your country can do for you - ask what you can do for your country."

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clause

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A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb.

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colloquialism

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Slang or informality in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms give work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.

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conceit

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A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness due to the unusual comparison being made.

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connotation

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The non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. Connotations may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes.

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denotation

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The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color.

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diction

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Related to style, diction refers to the writer's word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. For the AP Language Exam, you should be able to describe an author's diction (formal, informal, ornate, plain, etc) and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author's purpose.

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didactic

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From the Greek, didactic literally means "instructive." Didactic works have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles.

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euphemism

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From the Greek for "good speech," euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for generally unpleasant words or concepts. Ex. saying "earthly remains" instead of "corpse"

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extended metaphor

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A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work.

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figurative language

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Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid.

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generic conventions

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This term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to define each genre, for example, they differentiate between an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing. On the AP Language Exam, try to distinguish the unique features of a writer's work from those dictated by convention.

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homily

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This term literally means "sermon," but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.

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hyperbole

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A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony at the same time.

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imagery

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The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical level, imagery uses terms related to the five senses. On a broader level, one image can represent more than one thing. On the AP Language Exam, pay attention to HOW an author creates imagery and the effect of that imagery.

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invective

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An emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language.

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juxtaposition

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Placing dissimilar items, descriptions, or ideas close together or side by side, especially for comparison or contrast.

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loose sentence

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A type of sentence in which the main idea (ind. clause) comes first, followed by dependent clauses or phrases. A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, and conversational.

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metaphor

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A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution or one for the other, suggesting more similarity.

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metonymy

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A term from the Greek meaning "changed label" or "substitute name," metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. Ex. "the White House declared" rather than "the President declared"

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mood

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The prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood.

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narrative

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The telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events.

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oxymoron

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From the Greek for "pointedly foolish," an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Ex. "jumbo shrimp" and "cruel kindness"

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paradox

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A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense, but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. Ex. Macbeth - "Fair is foul, and foul is fair..."

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parallelism

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Also referred to as parallel structure, this term comes from Greek meaning "beside one another." It refers to the framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. Ex. Julius Caesar - "I came, I saw, I conquered."

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parody

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A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule.

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pedantic

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An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish.

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periodic sentence

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A sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone. Ex. "Ecstatic with my AP scores, I let out a loud shout of joy!"

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point of view: first person narrator

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The story is told with the use of first person pronouns by a character in the story.

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point of view: third person omniscient

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The story is related with the use of third person pronouns. The narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions of any or all characters.

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point of view: third person limited omniscient

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The story is told with the use of third person pronouns. The narrator presents the feelings and thoughts of only one character, and only the actions of the remaining characters.

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predicate adjectives

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One type of subject complement - an adjective, group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking verb. Ex. "My boyfriend is tall, dark, and handsome."

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predicate nominative

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One type of subject complement - a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject and follows a linking verb. Ex. "Abe Lincoln was a man of integrity."

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repetition

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The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language. It links and emphasizes ideas.

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rhetorical appeal - logos

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The persuasive device by which a writer tries to sway the audience's attention and response to a subject. Logos employs logical reasoning, combining a clear idea with well-thought-out and appropriate examples and details. These supports are logically presented and rationally reach the writer's conclusion.

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rhetorical appeal - ethos

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The persuasive device by which a writer tries to sway the audience's attention and response to a subject. Ethos establishes credibility in the speaker. He or she is perceived as someone who can be trusted and is concerned with the reader's best interests.

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rhetorical appeal - pathos

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The persuasive device by which a writer tries to sway the audience's attention and response to a subject. Pathos plays on the reader's emotions and interests. A sympathetic audience is more likely to accept a writer's assertions, so this appeal draws upon that understanding and uses it to the writer's advantage.

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rhetorical modes - exposition

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Also referred to as modes of discourse. Expository writing is used to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion.

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rhetorical modes - argumentation

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Also referred to as modes of discourse. The purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea by presenting sound reasoning, thoughtful discussion, and insightful argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Includes persuasive writing, which urges some form of action.

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rhetorical modes - description

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Also referred to as modes of discourse. The purpose of description is to re-create, invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or action so that the reader can picture that being described.

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rhetorical question

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A question that is asked merely for effect and does not expect a reply. The answer is assumed.

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satire

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A work that targets human vices and follies, or social institutions and conventions, for reform or ridicule.

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simile

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An explicit comparison, normally using "like," "as," or "if."

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style

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An evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices. We can analyze an author's personal style and make judgements on how appropriate it is to the author's purpose.

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subject complement

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The word or clause that follows a linking verb and completes the subject of the sentence by either renaming it or describing it. The former is called a predicate nominative, the latter a predicate adjective.

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subordinate clause

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Unlike the independent clause, the subordinate clause cannot stand alone; it does not express a complete thought. Also called a dependent clause.

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syllogism

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From the Greek for "reckoning together," a syllogism is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises that lead to a sound conclusions. Ex. All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

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symbol/symbolism

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Generally, anything that represents or stands for something else. Usually a symbol is something concrete - such as an object, action, character, or scene - that represents something more abstract.

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syntax

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The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is different from diction in that it refers to groups of words rather than the words as individuals. When taking the AP Language Exam, you will need to analyze how syntax produces effects.

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theme

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The central idea or message of a work; the insight it offers into life. Usually, the theme is unstated in fictional works, but is directly stated in nonfiction.

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thesis

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In expository writing, the thesis statement is the group of sentences that directly expresses the author's opinion, purpose, meaning, or proposition. Expository writing is usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively, and thoroughly an writer has proven the thesis.

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tone

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Similar to mood, tone describes the author's attitude toward his or her material, audience, or both. Considering how a work would sound when read aloud can help in identifying an author's tone.

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transition

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A word or phrase that links ideas.

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understatement - litotes

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The ironic minimizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant that it is. Litotes is a figure of speech by which an affirmation is made indirectly by denying its opposite. Ex. "He was not averse to a drink" means he drank a lot.