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129 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
refers to language that describes concepts rather than concrete images ( ideas and qualities rather than observable or specific things, people, or places). The observable or “physical” is usually described in concrete language.
Abstract
In an argument, this is an attack on the person rather than on the opponent’s ideas. It comes from the Latin meaning “against the man.”
Ad Hominem
The Latin name of this fallacy means "to the people." There are several versions of the ad populum fallacy, but what they all have in common is that in them, the arguer takes advantage of the desire most people have to be liked and to fit in with others and uses that desire to try to get the audience to accept his or her argument. One of the most common versions is the bandwagon fallacy, in which the arguer tries to convince the audience to do or believe something because everyone else (supposedly) does.
Ad populum
an extended narrative in prose or verse in which characters, events, and settings represent abstract qualities and in which the writer intends a second meaning to be read beneath the surface of the story; the underlying meaning may be moral, religious, political, social, or satiric. Examples: John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress (Temptations of Christians) , Orwell’s Animal Farm (Russian Revolution), and Arthur Miller’s Crucible (“Red Scare”)
Allegory
repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words that are close to one another: Mickey Mouse; Donald Duck; Daffy Duck; Suzy Sells Seashells …
Alliteration
a reference to a well-known person, place, or thing from literature, history, etc. Example: Eden, Scrooge, Prodigal Son, Catch-22, Judas, Don Quixote, Mother Theresa
Allusion
Comparison of two similar but different things, usually to clarify an action or a relationship, such as comparing the work of a heart to that of a pump. An analogy is a comparison to a directly parallel case. Ex: Shells were to ancient cultures as dollar bills are to modern American culture. Ex: Running a business is like managing an orchestra. Ex: The heart is like a pump.
Analogy
Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of two or more sentences in a row. This is a deliberate form of repetition and helps make the writer’s point more coherent. Ex: “There was the delight I caught in seeing long straight rows. There was the faint, cool kiss of sensuality. There was the vague sense of the infinite….” Ex: “We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender. “ Churchill.
Anaphora
a short, simple narrative of an incident; often used for humorous effect or to make a point.
Anecdote
Explanatory notes added to a text to explain, cite sources, or give bibliographical data.
Annotation
the presentation of two contrasting images. The ideas are balanced by word, phrase, clause, or paragraphs. Examples: “To be or not to be…” Shakespeare’s Hamlet “Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country….” Kennedy “The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here.” Lincoln
Antithesis
a short, often witty statement of a principle or a truth about life. Examples: “Early bird gets the worm.” “What goes around, comes around..” “People who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones
Aphorism
usually in poetry but sometimes in prose; the device of calling out to an imaginary, dead, or absent person or to a place, thing, or personified abstraction Ex: “For Brutus, as you know, was Caesar's angel. Judge, O you gods, how dearly Caesar loved him.” Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar.
Apostrophe
: Often we add strength to our arguments by referring to respected sources or authorities and explaining their positions on the issues we're discussing. If, however, we try to get readers to agree with us simply by impressing them with a famous name or by appealing to a supposed authority who really isn't much of an expert, we commit the fallacy of appeal to authority.
Appeal to authority
The assertion of a conclusion based on logical premises
Argument
: writing that attempts to prove the validity of a point of view or an idea by presenting reasoned arguments; persuasive writing is a form of argumentation
Argumentation
repetition of vowel sounds between different consonants, such as in neigh/fade,
Assonance
Commas used (with no conjunction) to separate a series of words. The parts are emphasized equally when the conjunction is omitted; in addition, the use of commas with no intervening conjunction speeds up the flow of the sentence. Asyndeton takes the form of X, Y, Z as opposed to X, Y, and Z. Ex: "Be one of the few, the proud, the Marines.” Marine Corps Ex: “We shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardships, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty.” John F. Kennedy.
Asyndeton
: A complicated fallacy; it comes in several forms and can be harder to detect than many of the other fallacies we've discussed. Basically, an argument that begs the question asks the reader to simply accept the conclusion without providing real evidence; the argument either relies on a premise that says the same thing as the conclusion (which you might hear referred to as "being circular" or "circular reasoning"), or simply ignores an important (but questionable) assumption that the argument rests on. Sometimes people use the phrase "beg the question" as a sort of general criticism of arguments, to mean that an arguer hasn't given very good reasons for a conclusion, but that's not the meaning we're going to discuss here.
Begging the question
harsh, awkward, or dissonant sounds used deliberately in poetry or prose; the opposite of euphony.
Cacophony
descriptive writing that greatly exaggerates a specific feature of a person’s appearance or a facet of personality.
Caricature
quality of a piece of writing in which all the parts contribute to the development of the central idea, theme, or organizing principle
Coherence
a word or phrase (including slang) used in everyday conversation and informal writing but that is often inappropriate in formal writing (y’all, ain’t)
Colloquialism
Logical result of the relationship between the premises. Conclusions serve as the thesis of the argument.
Conclusion
Language that describes specific, observable things, people, or places, rather than ideas or qualities.
Concrete Language
implied or suggested meaning of a word because of its association in the reader’s mind.
Connotation
repetition of identical consonant sounds within two or more words in close proximity, as in boost/best; it can also be seen within several compound words, such as fulfill and ping-pong
Consonance
a riddle whose answer is or involves a pun; it may also be a paradox or difficult problem
Conundrum
the process of moving from a general rule to a specific example or A process through which the premises provide conclusive proof for the conclusion
Deduction
literal meaning of a word as defined
Denotation
picturing in words of something or someone through detailed observation of color, motion, sound, taste, smell, and touch; one of the four modes of discourse
Description
word choice, an element of style; it creates tone, attitude, and style, as well as meaning. Different types and arrangements of words have significant effects on meaning. An essay written in academic ______ would be much less colorful, but perhaps more precise than street slang.
Diction
: writing whose purpose is to instruct or to teach. The work is usually formal and focuses on moral or ethical concerns. This type of writing may be fiction or nonfiction that teaches a specific lesson or moral or provides a model of correct behavior or thinking.
Didactic
spoken or written language, including literary works; the four traditionally classified modes are description, exposition, narration, and persuasion.
Discourse
harsh or grating sounds that do not go together
Dissonance
: When the reader is aware of an inconsistency between a fictional or nonfictional character’s perception of a situation and the truth of that situation.
Dramatic Irony
When a writer appeals to readers’ emotions (often through pathos) to excite and involve them in the argument.
Emotional Appeal
A shortened syllogism which omits the first premise, allowing the audience to fill it in. For example, "Socrates is mortal because he is a human" is an enthymeme which leaves out the premise "All humans are mortal."
Enthymeme
the use of a quotation at the beginning of a work that hints at its theme. Hemingway begins The Sun Also Rises with two quotations. One of them is “You are all a lost generation” by Gertrude Stein.
Epigraph
repetition of a word or expression at the end of successive phrases, clauses, sentences, or verses especially for rhetorical or poetic effect (as Lincoln's "of the people, by the people, for the people") Compare to anaphora. Ex: "When I was a child, I spoke like a child, I thought like a child, I reasoned like a child." (Corinthians) Ex: I'll have my bond!/ Speak not against my bond!/ I have sworn an oath that I will have my bond.---The Merchant of Venice.
Epistrophe
Equivocation is sliding between two or more different meanings of a single word or phrase that is important to the argument.
Equivocation
When a writer tries to persuade the audience to respect and believe him or her based on a presentation of image of self through the text. Reputation is sometimes a factor in this type of appeal, but in all cases the aim is to gain the audience’s confidence. (Ethos)
Ethical Appeal
a more acceptable and usually more pleasant way of saying something that might be inappropriate or uncomfortable. “He went to his final reward” is a common saying for “he died.” These are also often used to obscure the reality of a situation. The military uses “collateral damage” to indicate civilian deaths in a military operation.
Euphemism
a succession of harmonious sounds used in poetry or prose; the opposite of cacophony
Euphony
The art of interpreting or discovering the meaning of a text. It usually involves close reading and special attention to figurative language.
Explication
the immediate revelation to the audience of the setting and other background information necessary for understanding the plot; also, explanation; one of the four modes of discourse
Exposition
a sustained comparison, often referred to as a conceit. The extended metaphor is developed throughout a piece of writing
Extended Metaphor
When two cases are not sufficiently parallel to lead readers to accept a claim of connection between them.
False Analogy
In false dichotomy, the arguer sets up the situation so it looks like there are only two choices. The arguer then eliminates one of the choices, so it seems that we are left with only one option: the one the arguer wanted us to pick in the first place. But often there are really many different options, not just two—and if we thought about them all, we might not be so quick to pick the one the arguer recommends
False dichotomy or False dilemma
language that contains figures of speech, such as similes and metaphors, in order to create associations that are imaginative rather than literal.
Figurative Language
expressions, such as similes, metaphors, and personifications that make imaginative, rather than literal, comparisons or associations.
Figures of Speech
the use of a hint or clue to suggest a larger event that occurs late in the work
Foreshadowing
Sentence consisting of three or more very short independent clauses joined by conjunctions.
Freight-Train
When a writer bases a claim upon an isolated example or asserts that a claim is certain rather than probable. Sweeping generalizations occur when a writer asserts that a claim applies to all instances instead of some.
Generalization
a type of literary work, such as a novel or poem; there are also subgenres, such as science fiction or sonnet, within the larger genres
Genre
the excessive pride of ambition that leads a tragic hero to disregard warnings of impending doom, eventually causing his or her downfall.
Hubris
anything that causes laughter or amusement; up until the end of the Renaissance, humor meant a person’s temperament
Humor
A word or words, either figurative or literal, used to describe a sensory experience or an object perceived by the sense. An image is always a concrete representation.
Hyperbole
words or phrases that use a collection of images to appeal to one or more of the five senses in order to create a mental picture
Imagery
the process that moves from a given series of specifics to a generalization or A process through which the premises provide some basis for the conclusion.
Induction
conclusion one can draw from the presented details
Inference
writing that records the conversation that occurs inside a character’s head
Interior Monologue
a verbally abusive attack
Invective
reversing the customary (subject first, then verb, then complement) order of elements in a sentence or phrase; it is used effectively in many cases, such as posing a question: “Are you going to the store?” Usually, the element that appears first is emphasized more than the subject.
Inversion
a situation or statement in which the actual outcome or meaning is opposite to what was expected.
Irony
The special language of a profession or group. The term usually has pejorative associations, with the implication that jargon is evasive, tedious, and unintelligible to outsiders. The writings of the lawyer and the literary critic are both susceptible to jargon.
Jargon
the process of reasoning
Logic
a mistake in reasoning
Logical Fallacy
Songlike; characterized by emotions, subjectivity, and imagination.
Lyrical
a figure of speech in which one thing is referred to as another; for example, “my love is a fragile flower”
Metaphor
a figure of speech that uses the name of an object, person, or idea to represent something with which it is associated, such as using “the crown” to refer to a monarch ; Also, “The pen is mightier than the sword.”
Metonymy
the method or form of a literary work; the manner in which a work of literature is written
Mode
similar to tone, it is the primary emotional attitude of a work (the feeling of the work; the atmosphere). Syntax is also a determiner of this term because sentence strength, length, and complexity affect pacing.
Mood
The lesson drawn from a fictional or nonfictional story. It can also mean a heavily didactic story.
Moral
main theme or subject of a work that is elaborated on in the development of the piece; a repeated pattern or idea
Motif
the telling of a story in fiction, nonfiction, poetry, or drama; one of the four modes of discourse
Narration
Sentence that begins by stating what is NOT true, then ending by stating what is true.
Negative-Positive
Latin for “it does not follow.” When one statement isn’t logically connected to another
Non-sequitur
an impersonal presentation of events and characters. It is a writer’s attempt to remove himself or herself from any subjective, personal involvement in a story. Hard news journalism is frequently prized for its objectivity, although even fictional stories can be told without a writer rendering personal judgment.
Objectivity
the use of words that sound like what they mean, such as “hiss,” “buzz,” “slam,” and “boom”
Onomatopoeia
When a writer obscures or denies the complexity of the issues in an argument
Oversimplification
a figure of speech composed of contradictory words or phrases, such as “wise fool,” bitter-sweet,” “pretty ugly,” “jumbo shrimp,” “cold fire”
Oxymoron
the movement of a literary piece from one point or one section to another
Pacing
a short tale that teaches a moral; similar to but shorter than an allegory
Parable
a statement that seems to contradict itself but that turns out to have a rational meaning, as in this quotation from Henry David Thoreau; “I never found the companion that was so companionable as solitude.”
Paradox
the technique of arranging words, phrases, clauses, or larger structures by placing them side by side and making them similar in form. Parallel structure may be as simple as listing two or three modifiers in a row to describe the same noun or verb; it may take the form of two or more of the same type of phrases (prepositional, participial, gerund, appositive) that modify the same noun or verb; it may also take the form of two or more subordinate clauses that modify the same noun or verb. Or, parallel structure may be a complex bend of singe-word, phrase, and clause parallelism all in the same sentence. Example (from Churchill): “We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields.”
Parallelism
a work that ridicules the style of another work by imitating and exaggerating its elements. . It can be utterly mocking or gently humorous. It depends on allusion and exaggerates and distorts the original style and content.
Parody
an element in experience or in artistic representation evoking pity or compassion. . Over-emotionalism can be the result of an excess of pathos.
Pathos
: a term used to describe writing that borders on lecturing. It is scholarly and academic and often overly difficult and distant
Pedantic
the attribution of human qualities to a nonhuman or an inanimate object
Personification
a form of argumentation, one of the four modes of discourse; language intended to convince through appeals to reason or emotion.
Persuasion
the perspective from which a story is presented
Point of View
Sentence which uses and or another conjunction (with no commas) to separate the items in a series. Polysyndeton appear in the form of X and Y and Z, stressing equally each member of a series. It makes the sentence slower and the items more emphatic than in the asyndeton.
Polysyndeton
This fallacy gets its name from the Latin phrase "post hoc, ergo propter hoc," which translates as "after this, therefore because of this."
Post hoc (also called false cause)
Proposition used as evidence in an argument.
Premise
the main character of a literary work
Protagonist
When a writer raises an irrelevant issue to draw attention away from the real issue
Red Herring
the Latin for “to reduce to the absurd.” This is a technique useful in creating a comic effect and is also an argumentative technique. It is considered a rhetorical fallacy because it reduces an argument to an either/or choice
Reductio ad Absurdum
an element in literature that conveys a realistic portrayal of a specific geographical locale, using the locale and its influences as a major part of the plot
Regionalism
Word or phrase used two or more times in close proximity
Repetition
the art of effective communication, especially persuasive discourse; Rhetoric focuses on the interrelationship of invention, arrangement, and style in order to create felicitous and appropriate discourse.
Rhetoric
exposition, description, narration, argumentation
Rhetorical modes
one that does not expect an explicit answer. It is used to pose an idea to be considered by the speaker or audience.
Rhetorical Question
harsh, caustic personal remarks to or about someone; less subtle than irony
Sarcasm
A work that reveals a critical attitude toward some element of human behavior by portraying it in an extreme way. It doesn’t simply abuse (as in invective) or get personal (as in sarcasm). It targets groups or large concepts rather than individuals.
Satire
Time and place of a literary work
Setting
a figure of speech that uses like, as, or as if to make a direct comparison between two essentially different objects, actions, or qualities; for example, “The sky looked like an artist’s canvas.”
Simile
The arguer claims that a sort of chain reaction, usually ending in some dire consequence, will take place, but there's really not enough evidence for that assumption. The arguer asserts that if we take even one step onto the "slippery slope," we will end up sliding all the way to the bottom; he or she assumes we can't stop halfway down the hill.
Slippery slope
the voice of a work; an author may speak as himself or herself or as a fictitious persona
Speaker
a character who represents a trait that is usually attributed to a particular social or racial group and who lacks individuality; a conventional patter, expression or idea.
Stereotype
When a writer argues against a claim that nobody actually holds or is universally considered weak. Setting up a straw man diverts attention from the real issues.
Straw Man
an author’s characteristic manner of expression – his or her diction, syntax, imagery, structure, and content all contribute to style
Style
: a personal presentation of evens and characters, influenced by the author’s feelings and opinions
Subjectivity
A form of reasoning in which two statements are made and a conclusion is drawn from them. A syllogism is the format of a formal argument that consists of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. Example: Major Premise: All tragedies end unhappily. Minor Premise: Hamlet is a tragedy. Conclusion: Therefore, Hamlet ends unhappily.
Syllogism
the use of symbols or anything that is meant to be taken both literally and as representative of a higher and more complex significance
Symbolism
a figure of speech in which a part of something is used to represent a whole, such as using “boards” to mean a stage or “wheels” to mean a car – or “All hands on deck.”
Synecdoche
Ability to create a variety of sentence structures, appropriately complex and/or simple and varied in length.
Syntactic Fluency
Sentence structures that are extraordinarily complex and involved. They are often difficult for a reader to follow.
Syntactic Permutation
the grammatical structure of a sentence; the arrangement of words in a sentence. It includes length of sentence, kinds of sentences (questions, exclamations, declarative sentences, rhetorical questions, simple, complex, or compound).
Syntax
the central idea or “message” or a literary work
Theme
the main idea of a piece of writing. It presents the author’s assertion or claim. The effectiveness of a presentation is often based on how well the writer presents, develops, and supports this.
Thesis
the characteristic emotion or attitude of an author toward the characters, subject, and audience (anger, sarcastic, loving, didactic, emotional, etc.)
Tone
a word or phrase that links one idea to the next and carries the reader from sentence to sentence, paragraph to paragraph.
Transition
Sentence consisting of three parts of equal importance and length, usually three independent clauses.
Tricolon
the opposite of exaggeration. It is a technique for developing irony and/or humor where one writes or says less than intended
Understatement
quality of a piece of writing (also see coherence)
Unity
refers to two different areas of writing. One refers to the relationship between a sentence’s subject and verb (active and passive voice). The second refers to the total “sound” of a writer’s style
Voice
Many arguments rely on an analogy between two or more objects, ideas, or situations. If the two things that are being compared aren't really alike in the relevant respects, the analogy is a weak one, and the argument that relies on it commits the fallacy of weak analogy
Weak analogy or Loose analogy