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142 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are 5 commonly used blood tests today?
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1) hematocrit
2) hemoglobin 3) blood urea nitrogen 4) total white blood cell count 5) white blood cell differentiation |
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What does hematocrit measure?
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-the percentage of red blood cells in a blood sample (35-45% is normal)
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What does hemoglobin measure?
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-hemoglobin concentration of whole blood
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What does blood urea nitrogen measure?
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-the urea nitrogen content of whole blood as an idicator of kidney and/or liver function
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What is the purpose of WBC count?
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-total number of white blood cells in a blood sample
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What is the purpose of a WBC differential?
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-to evaluate a stained blood smear
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What is the formula for calculating the hematocrit in a capillary tube?
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RBC length/fluid length x 100
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How do you calculate the true hematocrit?
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hematocrit x 0.96
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What is the purpose of calculating the true hematocrit?
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-it is not possible to fully compact the RBC present in the plasma becuase approcimately 3-8% of plasma is entrapped between the red blood cells.
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How did we do the hematocrit test?
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-fill cap tube 3/4, clay pack
-centrifuge 4 minutes -measure total fluid length -use formula |
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What did we do for the hemoglobin test?
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-Tallquist method (1 drop whole blood on small test paper, wait 15s, match color in gms)
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What is a decrease in Hb called?
Increase? |
-anemia
-hemochromotosis |
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What is Hb measured in?
How does this compare to PCV? |
-g/dL
-1/3 of PCV |
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What is urea nitrogen?
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-waste product of protein metabolism
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Where is urea formed?
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In the liver, carried by blood to the kidneys for excretion
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What can cause BUN alterations?
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-renal function
-protein breakdown -hydration status -liver failure -excessive GI bleeding |
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In terms of kidney function, what does BUN do?
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When damaged or diseased kidneys can't clear urea from the bloodstream, BUN increases. Hypovolemic shock or congestive heart failure result from decreased renal perfusion
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What test was used to perform a BUN?
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Azostix reagent strips: large drop of blood on stick, wait 60s, rinse for 1-2 sec, compare color immediately
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What was used to perform a WBC count?
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-hemacytometer
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What causes the lysing of red blood cells in the hemacytometer?
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-acetic acid
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What is the equation for calculating WBC?
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-(ave per square) x (100) x (10,000) = WBC/mL
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What does the 100 account for in the WBC calculation?
How about the 1000? |
-dilution factor
-volume of counting chamber |
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What are the proper sequences of staining?
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-dip and blot 5 times in fixative, then eosin, then hematoxylin
-lastly, blot back of slide with PT to remove excess stain |
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Describe red tops.
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*NO anticoagulant
-used to harvest serum after sample clots |
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Describe tiger tops.
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*contains gel barrier
-serum seperator, no need to draw off serum after |
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Describe lavender (purple) tops.
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Contains EDTA to bind up calcium. This prevents coagulation and used for CBC and cytology of body fluids (preserves cells well).
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Describe green tops.
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*contains heparin which interferes with thrombin formation
-available as sodium, potassium, or lithuim salt. -not permanent, so clot may form -can be spun immediately |
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Describe blue tops.
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*contains sodium citrate which ties up calcium
-usually used for coagulation testing |
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Describe gray tops.
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*contains potassium oxalate which ties up calcium
-useful in measuring glucose and lactate if blood sample can't be spun down and separated quickly |
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What are the main components of blood?
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-cells (formed elements) 45%
-plasma (92% water, 8% solids) 55% |
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Describe RBC's.
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-erythrocytes
-formed in blood marrow -no nucleus (starts with one) |
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Which animals have weird RBC's?
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-goats: have 4 nuclei
-amphibians/birds: have nucleus and oval in shape |
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What is rouleau?
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-factor found in horse blood (unique!) allowing stacking of blood into chains for more compression.
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What is hemolysis?
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-lysis of RBS due to toxins, parasites
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What is anemia?
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-reduction of RBC numbers or Hb resulting in less oxygen transport
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What are three things that cause anemia?
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1) reduction in formation (lack of iron, nutrition
2) blood loss: parasites, lacerations 3) increased RBC destruction: malaria, immune disorder |
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What is hypoxia?
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-decreased oxygen in tissues
*more oxygen: brighter it is! |
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What is hemoglobin for?
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-transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide
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What are thrombocytes?
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-platelets
-1/2 size of RBC's -involved in blood clots |
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What are leukocytes?
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WBC's
-diapedesis -can be granulocytes or agranulocytes |
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What is diapedesis?
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-independent movement
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-What are neutrophils?
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-many multishaped nuclei, often u-shaped
-cytoplasm doesn't stain well -phagocytic *largest in number and most common *aka: polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN) -neutrophilia vs neutropenia |
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What are eosinophils?
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-acidophils
-take up red stain -scarce except in chronic disease and allergies -acidopenia vs acidophilia |
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What are basophils?
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-take up blue dye
-scarce except in acute allergic reactions/inflammations -basphilia vs basopenia |
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What are monocytes?
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-moving WBC's
-largest WBC -phagocytic -called macrophages with stationary -called Kupffer cells when stationary in liver |
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What are lymphocytes?
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-lacolized in lymph nosed causing inflammed nodes during illness
-largest nucleus -T cells and B cells |
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What do B cells do?
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Form antibodies
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What do T cells do?
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Kill foreign bodies
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What are the protein parts of plasma?
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-albumin
-globulins -fibrinogen |
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What are the other materials in plasma?
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-amino acids
-lipids -glucose -cholesterol -enzymes -hormones -waste products |
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What are the waste products found in plasma?
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-urea
-uric acid -ammonia salts -creatinine |
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Describe albumin
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-most abundent protein in plasma used for transport and maintaining osmotic pressure
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Describe globulins
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-alpha, beta, gamma
-transport and clotting factors |
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Describe fibrinogen
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-mesh for platelets
-clotting |
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What is serum?
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-liquid left after clotting factores have been removed
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What are the mechanisms for anticoagulation?
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-tie up calcium
-interfere with thrombin formation -interfere with vit K |
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What components make up the urinary system?
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-bladder
-two ureters -two kidneys -urethra |
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What do kidneys look like?
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-bean shaped
-dark brown color -located behind peritoneum -right kidney slightly lower than left one (dispacement from liver) |
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What supplies each kidney with blood and from where?
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-renal artery from a branch of the abdominal aorta
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Where does blood exit the kidney and what does this connect to?
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-renal vein connects to the inferior vena cava
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What is the funnel end of each ureter called?
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-the pelvis
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What is the exiting of urine from the bladder called?
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micturition
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What controls micturition?
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-sphincter vesicae
-sphincter urethrae |
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Describe the sphincter vesicae.
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-smooth muscle sphincter near exit of bladder
-when about 300ml of urine accumulates, bladder parasympathetically causes walls to contract moving urine to next sphincter in the urethra. |
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Describe the sphincter urethrae.
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-sphincter between urethra and outside environment
-skeletal muscle fibers, volunatarilary controlled -micturation occurs only when desired |
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What is the thin covering of the kidney called?
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-renal capsule
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What covers the kidney providing suppor and protection?
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-fatty capsule
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What lays under the renal capsule and what does it look like?
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-cortex
-reddish brown (due to great blood supply) |
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What is the next part of the kidney after the cortex?
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-the medulla
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What is the renal medulla divided into?
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-cone shaped renal pyramids
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What is the tissue that extends down between each renal pyramid?
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-cortical tissue in the form of renal columns
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What is the end of each renal pyramid called and where do these project to?
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-renal papilla, which project into a calyx.
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What are calyces and where do these lead?
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-short tubes that receive urine from the renal papillae
-they empty into the renal pelvis |
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What is the basic functioning unit of the kidney?
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-nephron
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How many nephrons are estimated to be in each kidney?
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-about 1 million nephrons!
-80% in cortex, the rest partially in the cortex and medulla |
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What are nephrons in the cortex called? How about the remainder nephrons?
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-cortical nephrons
-juxtamedullary nephrons |
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What three physiological activities result in urine formation?
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1) filtration
2) reabsorption 3) secretion |
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Where does urine formation occur in the nephron?
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-different regions which is why urine formed in beginning of nephron is quite unlike the urine that enters the calyces of the kidney
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What is the enlarged end of the nephron called?
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-renal corpuscle
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What are the two parts of a renal corpuscle?
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1) glomerulus
2) glomerular capsule |
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What is the glomerulus?
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-an inner tuft of capillaries in the renal capsule
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What is the glomerular capsule?
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-outer double walled cap-like structure in the renal corpuscle
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Where does blood go from the renal artery to get to the nephron?
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-interlobular artery
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From the interlobular artery, how does blood get to the glomerulus?
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-afferent arteriole
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What does blood exit the glomerulus through?
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-efferent arteriole (much smaller than afferent)
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How does glomerular filtrate move?
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High intraglomerular blood pressure forces it to pass into the glomerular capsule.
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What is the fluid made up of that called glomerular filtrate?
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-glucose
-amino acids -urea -salts -lots of water |
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Once in the glomerular capsule, where does the filtrate pass to get into the large collecting duct?
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-proximal convoluted tubule
-descending limb of Henle's loop -ascending limb of Henle's loop -distal convoluted tubule -collecting duct |
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What are peritubular capillaries?
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-capillaries that enmesh the entire route glomerular filtrate passes while reabsorbing water, glucose, amino acids, and other substances.
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What absorbs up to 80% of the water as filtrate moves through nephron?
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-Walls of the proximal convoluted tubules
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What facilitates water reabsorption and from where?
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-antidiuretic hormone of teh posterior pituitary
-aldosterone of the adrenal cortex |
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How is urine altered in the collecting duct?
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-cells lining collecting duct secrete ammonia, uric acid, and other substances.
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Does the brain or the kidney recieve more blood?
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-kidney
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What are the three major functions of the urinary sytem and where do they occur?
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-all occur in the kidney
1) remove products of cellular metabolism from the body 2) homeostasis of body fluid volume and solute composition 3) control the plasma pH |
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What is the primary product of urinary system production?
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-urine
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What are the four primary components of the kidney?
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1) renal capsule
2) renal cortex 3) renal medulla 4) renal pelvis |
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What is the renal capsule made of?
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-fibrous connective tissue
-fat deposits |
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What is the hilus?
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-an indentation of the medial surface of the kidney where the pelvis exits
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What tests are usually part of a urinalysis?
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-color
-clarity -glucose -hemoglobin -ketones -leukocyte presence -odor -pH -protein -specific gravity |
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What else is done to analyze urine?
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-sediment examination
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What can make urine cloudy?
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-bacteria, blood, sperm, crystals, or mucus
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What can make urine smell different?
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-E.Coli causes foul odor
-diabetes or starvation causes sweet, fruity odor |
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What does a high specific gravity mean?
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There are lots of solutes dissolved in the urine. This is from dehydration and vice-versa.
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What is consistantly acidic urine a sign of?
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-metabolic or respiratory acidosis
-methanol poisoning -metabolic disorders |
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What is consistent alkaline urine indicative of?
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-metabolic and respiratory alkalosis
-urinary tract infections |
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What would high levels of protein indicate in urine?
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-glomerular damge
-excessive exervise -cold exposure -acute abdominal diseases |
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What would glucose in the urine mean?
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-spilling over from exceptionally high blood glucose
-damaged/diseased kidney's |
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What would high levels of ketones be indicative of?
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-diabetic ketoacidosis
-diet low in sugars and starches -starvation -prolonged vomiting |
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What would Hb indicate in urine?
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-destruction of RBC's faster than liver can remove
-lesion along genitourinary tract |
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What would leukocyte presence indicate?
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-infection is present
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What are some things found in a sediment test?
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-red or white blood cells
-casts -crystals -"critters" |
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What is meant by "critters" in urine?
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-bacteria
-yeast cells -parasites |
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What are the different types of casts?
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-hyaline
-granular -waxy -RBC -WBC |
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What are the different types of crystals?
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-oxalate (squares with x)
-triple phosphate (coffins) -cystine (hexagonal) |
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What lines both the kidney and the ureter?
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-transitional epithelium
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What are the layers of the ureter?
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-epithelium
-connective tissue -three layers of smooth muscle *innermost is longitudinal *middle is circularly around tube *outermost is longitudinal again |
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What is the bladder made of?
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-transitional epithelium
-underlying connective tissue (lamina propria) -interwoven smooth muscle wall (no distinct layers) |
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When empty, transitional epithelium can be seen as what two distinct cells?
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-cuboidal and columnar cells
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After bladder distension, what do the cells look like?
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-squamous epithelial cells
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What double walled epithelium where glomeruli embed?
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-Bowmans capsule
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What is the part of Bowmans capsule that covers the capillaries of glomeruli? How about the outer capsule part?
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-visceral
-parietal |
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What are proximal tubules?
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-distinguished by an uneven apical border (it is a brush border)
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What are distal tubules?
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-no brush border so they are distinguished from proximal tubules by the fact that they have a smoother apical surface
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What did we use to perform a specific gravity test?
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-refractometer
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What fluid lines each alveolus?
What is it for? |
-surfactant
-reduce suface tension of the fluid to prevent alveoli from collapsing as air moves in and out during breathing |
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What are the parts of the lung?
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-base
-apex -convex lateral surface |
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What is the area between the lungs called?
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-mediastinum
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What does the mediastinum contain?
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-heart, large blood vessels, nerves, trachea, esophagus, and lymphatic vessels and nodes.
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What distinguishes the lobes of the lungs?
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-the major branches of the bronchi
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What are the lobes of each lung?
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-left lung has two lobes (cranial and caudal)
-right lung has four lobes (cranial, middle, cuadal, and a small accessory lobe) *horse doesn't have lobes except for accessory lobe on right lung |
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What is the hilus of the lung?
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-the only stationary part of lung
-well defined area on medial side where air, blood, lymph, and nerves enter and leave the lung |
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What lines a typical bronchiole?
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-smooth muscle
-outer ciliated pseudostratified epithelium |
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What makes up most of the lung?
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-air spaces
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What is TLC? What composes this?
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-total lung capacity
-vital capacity and residual volume |
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What is vital capacity?
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-maximal amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximum inhalation (4800mL)
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What is residual volume?
How can this be calculated? |
-volume of air that remains in lungs after amaximal exhalation (1200mL)
-25% of VC in females, 33% in males |
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What are the subdivisions of vital capacity?
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-tidal volume
-inspiratory reserve volume -expiratory reserve volume |
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What is tidal volume?
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Normal amount of air inhaled or exhaled
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What is IRV?
ERV? |
-maximum amount of air inhaled after a normal inhalation (3100mL)
-opposite |
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How do female volumes differ from male inhalation/exhalation?
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-20-25% less
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What is spirometry useful in?
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-evaluating pulmonary function
-diagnosing pulmonary disorders |
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What are the two lung classifications for disorders?
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-obstructive
-restrictive |
