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192 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Skin characteristics
Composed of 2 layers
Maintains homeostasis
Protective covering
Contains immune system cells
Has sensory receptors
Retards water loss by diffusion
Synthesizes chemicals (Vitamin D)
Excretes small amounts of water
Layers of skin
Epidermis
Dermis
Subcutaneous layer (not actually part of the skin)
Epidermis - composition
Stratified squamous epithelium (multiple layers)
Keratinized
Lacks blood vessels
Melanocytes
Cells that produce melanin
Found along basement membrane of epidermis
Melanin
Protein with a very dark color
Absorbs light
Functions to prevent damage, mostly from UV light
Dermis - composition
Dense irregular connective tissue
Contains muscle fibers (smooth muscle for hair follicles, glands/skeletal muscle in face anchored to dermis)
Structures located in the dermis
Nerve cell receptors
Blood vessels
Hair follicles (but is epidermal structure)
Glands
Subcutaneous layer - composition
Loose connective tissue
Adipose tissue
Contains major blood vessels
Subcutaneous layer - function
Insulate the body
Connect skin to underlying structures
Structures of the skin
Hair follicle
Nails
Sebaceous glands
Sweat glands
Hair follicle
Tube-like depression where hair forms (contains hair root and shaft)
Formed by epidermal cells (stratified squamous tissue)
Extends into the dermis
Hair
Dead epidermal cells, tightly packed
Contains melanin (for color)
Hair follicle - associated structures
Arrector pili muscle (smooth muscle)
Sebaceous glands
Nails
Protective coverings for the more distal phalanges
Structures of the epidermis
Nails - components
Nail plate
Nail bed
Lunula
Nail plate
Portion of nail that covers the underlying skin
Nail bed
Specialized epitheleal cells that are continuous with the epidermis
Lunula
Also known as the cuticle
Most active region of the nail
Gives rise to tiny, keratinized scales that become part of the nail plate, pushing it forward (nail growth)
Sebaceous glands
Gland associated with a hair follicle
Duct of gland injects into hair follicle
Holocrine gland
Secretes sebum
Absent on palms and soles
Holocrine gland
Cells of the gland ruptures to release the secretion
Sebum
Oily secretion and cellular debris that coats hair
Types of sweat glands
Eccrine glands
Apocrine glands
Ceruminous glands
Eccrine glands - where located
Dermis
Eccrine glands - where duct opens
Skin surface
Eccrine glands - gland function
Helps with temperature regulation
Apocrine glands - where located
Dermis and subcutaneous layer
on axilla (armpit), groin, face
Apocrine glands - where duct opens
Into hair follicle
Apocrine glands - gland function
Responsible for body odor
Believed to secrete pheremones
Ceruminous glands - where located
Ear
Ceruminous glands - where duct opens
Into ear canal
Ceruminous glands - function
combines with sebum to form a waxy secretion for protection
Factors affecting skin color
Genetics
Environmental
Physiological
Skin color - genetic factors
Varying amounts of melanin in the cells
- Based on DNA
Varying size of the melanin granules
- Based on DNA
Albinism
Genetic mutation where the cells lack melanin. The gene that codes for melanin production is not present or derformed.
Skin color - environmental factors
Sunlight / UV Light / X-rays
Stimulate melanocytes to produce more melanin
Temporary
Skin color - physiological factors
Dilation of dermal blood vessels
Constriction of dermal blood vessels
Carotene
Jaundice
Epidermis - what is found?
keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium
Hair follicles (penetrate into the dermis, but made of epidermal tissue)
Keratin
Melanocytes
Epidermis - what is not found?
Blood vessels
Dermis - what is found?
Dense irregular connective tissue
Muscle fibers
Nerve cell receptors
Blood vessels
Hair follicles (but is epidermal structure)
Sweat glands
Sebaceous glands
Subcutaneous layer - what is found?
Loose connective tissue
Adipose tissue
Major blood vessels
How are bones classified?
By shape, not size
Types of bones:
Long bones
Short bones
Flat bones
Irregular bones
Sesamoid bones (round)
Long bones
Long longitudal axis
Expanded ends
Long bones - examples
Humerus
Femur
Phalanges
Short bones
Cube-like, square
Length & width about equal
Short bones - examples
Carpals
Tarsals
Flat bones
Plate-like structures
Broad surfaces
Flat bones - examples
Ribs
Bones of the skull
Irregular bones
Variety of shapes
Usually connected to several other bones
Irregular bones - examples
Vertebra
Facial bones
Sesamoid bones
Small and nodular
Usually embedded within tendons that are adjacent to joints
Sesamoid bones - examples
Patella
Parts of a long bone
Epiphysis
Diaphysis
Periosteum
Epiphysis
Expanded portion at the end of a long bone

Usually articulates with another bone
End is covered by cartilage
Made up of mostly spongy bone
Diaphysis
Shaft of the bone
Walls composed mainly of compact bone
Hollow cavity, contains marrow
Periosteum
Vascular covering of fibrous connective tissue
Adherent to the bone's surface
Continuous with the ligaments and tendons
Endosteum
thin membrane lining the interior of the cavity of a bone
Spongy bone
Osteocytes and extracellular matrix
DO NOT cluster around a central canal
Osteocytes lie within thin, branching plates
Receive nutrition by diffusion from capillaries
Compact bone
Osteocytes and extracellular matrix
Cluster around a central canal
Form a cylinder-shaped unit, called osteon
Osteon
Fundamental functional unit of compact bone
Each osteon consists of concentric layers, or lamellae, of compact bone tissue that surround a central canal, the Haversian canal. The Haversian canal contains the bone's nerve and blood supplies
Haversian canal
contains blood vessels and nerves
Trabeculae
Thin, branching plates within spongy bone
Intramembranous ossification
For formation of broad, flat bones
Intramembranous ossification - process
Bone develops within sheet-like layers of fibrous connective tissue (on top or with tissue structures)
Osteoblasts form spongy bone around blood vessels plus all the layers of connective tissue in every direction
Intramembranous ossification - examples
Bones of the skull
Endochondral ossification
Formation of long bones
Endochondral ossification - process (general)
Structure shaped like the bone develops from masses of hyaline cartilage
Cartilage models grow extensively, then begin to degenerate
Periosteum forms
Blood vessels invade the structure
Connective tissue stem cells become osteoblasts
Begins with osteoblasts form compact bone in the space where cartilage was
Later, spongy bone is formed in the epiphyses
Primary ossification center
center of the diaphysis
Compact bone grows outward toward each end
Secondary ossification center
Spongy bone is formed in the epiphyses
Epiphyseal plate
Thin layer of hyaline cartilage that separates the ossification centers
Also called the growth plate
Is replaced with bone as age increases
Endochondral ossification - process (length)
Cartilage cells divide to enlarge the epiphyseal plates at both ends of the bone
Cartilage becomes ossified and forms new bone
Results in lengthening of the limb
Endochondral ossification - process (width)
Compact bone is deposited on the outside of existing bone, along the wall of the diaphysis, beneath the periosteum
Increases width of the bone (also increases strength)
Types of fractures
Greenstick
Fissured
Comminuted
Transverse
Oblique
Spiral
Greenstick fracture
incomplete break
break occurs on the convex surface of the bend in the bone
Fissured fracture
occurs on the longitudinal axis of the bone
incomplete break
Comminuted fracture
complete fracture, results in multiple bone fragments
Transverse fracture
complete break, occurs at right angle to the axis of the bone
Oblique fracture
fracture that occurs at an angle other than a right angle to the axis of the bone
Spiral fracture
caused by excessive twisting of the bone
Bone functions
Support, protection and movement
Blood cell formation (hematopoisis)
Inorganic salt storage (NaCl, K, etc)
hematopoisis
Process of blood cell formation
Begins embryonically, moves to liver and spleen, finally to the bone
Bone marrow - types
Red marrow
Yellow marrow
Bone marrow
Soft, net-like mass of connective tissue that is found in the cavity of bones
Red marrow - function
active blood cell formation
Yellow marrow - function
inactive, fat storage
Inorganic salt storage
Extracellular material in bone has collagen and minerals
Most: Calcium Phosphate
Other minerals stored: Na, Mg, K, NaCO3
Calcium Phosphate [Ca2(PO4)2] supports
nerve function
muscle function
clot formation
Osteoporosis
Increased osteoblast activity when blood calcium levels are normal
Makes compact bone porous
Most often found in post-menopausal women
Number of bones in the body
206 (typically)
Divisions of the skeleton
Axial
Appendicular
Axial skeleton
Head
Neck
Trunk
Axial skeleton bones
Skull (8)
Facial (14)
Middle ear (3) (bilateral)
Hyoid (1)
Vertebral column (26)
Thoracic cage (1 sternum, 12 ribs (bilateral))
Appendicular skeleton
Upper limbs
Lower limbs
Bones that anchor the limbs to the axial skeleton
Appendicular skeleton bones
Each side:
Pectoral girdle (2)
Upper limb (30)
Pelvic girdle (3)
Lower limb (30)
Process
Prominent projection on a bone
usually tapered or pointed
Condyle
A round process
Usually articulates with another bone to form a joint
Foramen
An opening through a bone
Usually serves as a passageway for a blood vessel or nerve
Fossa
A deep depression in the surface of a bone
Tubercle
A small, knob-like process
Epicondyle
A projection situated above a condyle
Tuberosity
A knob-like process
Smaller than a trochanter, larger than a tubercle
Trochanter
A very large process on a bone
Suture
Interlocking joint between bones
Held together by dense connective tissue
Only found in flat bones
Sinus
Cavity in a bone
Coronal suture
Between frontal and parietal bones
Sagittal suture
between left and right parietal bones
Squamous suture
Between parietal and temporal bones
Lambdoid suture
Between parietal and occipital bones
Frontal bone
Classification/Division/Location/Notes
Flat/Axial

Anterior portion of the cranium
Occipital bone
Classification/Division/Location/Notes
Flat/Axial

Posterior/inferior portion of the cranium

Articulates with C1 vertebra
Contains foramen magnum
Foramen magnum
Opening in the occipital bone at the base of the skull that the spinal cord passes through
Parietal bone (L&R)
Classification/Division/Location/Notes
Flat/Axial

Lateral sides and roof of the cranium
Temporal bone (L&R)
Classification/Division/Location/Notes
Flat/Axial

Side of cranium, above ear

Contains
External acoustic meatus (ear hole)
Mandibular fossa (forms joint with mandible)
Mastoid process
Internal ear structures
Canal for the major artery to the brain
Maxilla
Classification/Division/Location/Notes
Flat/Axial

Upper jaw
Contains sockets for upper teeth
Zygomatic (L&R)
Classification/Division/Location/Notes
Flat/Axial

Cheek bones
Form lateral walls & floors of orbits of eyes
Nasal (L&R)
Classification/Division/Location/Notes
Flat/Axial

Nose
Attachment point for hyaline cartilage that forms the nose
Mandible
Classification/Division/Location/Notes
Irregular/Axial

Lower jaw
Ramus (branch) points superior
Coronoid process (anterior)
Mandibular condyle (posterior)
Contains sockets for lower teeth
Hyoid
Classification/Division/Location/Notes
Flat/Axial

Anterior neck, superior to thyroid cartilage

Only bone that doesn't articulate with another bone

Supports the tongue, helps tongue move when swallowing
Vertebral column - regions & number of vertebra
Cervical (7)
Thoracic (12)
Lumbar (5)
Sacral (5) - fused into 1
Coccygeal (4) - fused into 1

26 total
Bones are irregular/axial
C1 vertebra
Atlas
C2 vertebra
Axis
Thoracic cage
Ribs (12) (bilateral)
Sternum
Ribs 1-7
True ribs
Articulate directly with the sternum
Ribs 8-12
False ribs
Do not directly articulate with the sternum
Ribs 11-12
Floating ribs, no connection on the anterior side to the sternum
Ribs 8-10
Anterior cartilage joins with cartilage of rib 7
Sternum - parts
Manubrium
Body
Xyphoid process
Manubrium
Superior portion of sternum
Articulates with the clavicles
Articulates with rib #1
Body
Articulates with ribs 2-7
Xyphoid process
Inferior end of sternum
Clavicle (L&R)
Classification/Division/Location/Notes
Long/appendicular

Upper chest

Articulates with sternum (manubrium) on proximal side
Articulates with scapula on lateral side at the acromion process

Only bone that attaches arm to the body
Only long bone that runs horizontally
Scapula (L&R)
Classification/Division/Location/Notes
Flat/appendicular

Shoulder (posterior)

There is no articulation between the scapula and the axial skeleton

Acromion process (superior, lateral) articulates with the clavicle
Glenoid fossa articulates with the head of the humerous
Upper limb - composition
Arm
Forearm
Hand
Arm
Humerous
Forearm
Ulna and radius
Hand
Carpals
Metacarpals
Phalanges
Upper limb - number of bones
30 total
1 - Humerus
1 - Ulna
1 - Radius
8 - Carpal
5 - Metacarpal
14 - Phalanges
Humerus (L&R)
Classification/Division/Location/Notes
Long/appendicular

Head - proximal end (articulates with Glenoid fossa of scapula)

Greater tubercle on lateral side for attachment of shoulder muscles

Lateral condyle - articulates with radius
Medial condyle - articulates with ulna

Coronoid fossa (anterior) - receives Ulna when lower arm flexed

Olecranon fossa (posterior) - receives Ulna when lower arm extended (deeper of 2 fossa)
Coronoid fossa
On distal, anterior surface of humerus

receives Ulna when lower arm flexed
Olecranon fossa
On distal, posterior surface of humerus

receives Ulna when lower arm extended (deeper of 2 fossa of humerus)
Radius (L&R)
Classification/Division/Location/Notes
Long/appendicular

Forearm

Head - proximal end, articulates with lateral condyle of humerus

Thumb side in anatomical position

Styloid process on distal end
Ulna (L&R)
Classification/Division/Location/Notes
Long/appendicular

Forearm

Head - distal end (only bone in body with head at distal end)

Trochlear notch at distal end - articulates with olecranon process and coronoid process of humerus
Only bone in body with head at distal end
Ulna
Trochlear notch
At proximal end of ulna
C-like opening
Articulates with distal humerus
Fits between olecranon process and coronoid process
Carpals
Classification/Division/Location/Notes
Short/appendicular

Wrist

2 rows of 4 bones
Rows are concave anteriorly
Metacarpals
Classification/Division/Location/Notes
Long/appendicular

Hand
Phalanges
Classification/Division/Location/Notes
Long/appendicular

Hand

14 total
Thumb has 2, other fingers have 3
Pelvic girdle - composition
Composed of 2 halves, called coxal bone
- Ilium
- Ischium
- Pubis
Coxal bone
One of two halves of the pelvis
Composed of:
- Ilium
- Ischium
- Pubis
Ilium
Classification/Division/Location/Notes
Flat/appendicular

Pelvis

Superior portion of coxal bone
Forms joint with sacrum (sacroiliac joint)
Site of attachment of inguinal ligament
Ischium
Classification/Division/Location/Notes
Flat/appendicular

Pelvis

Inferior portion of coxal bone
L-Shaped
Ischial tuberosity (butt bone)
Ischial spine (points medially)
Pubis
Classification/Division/Location/Notes
Flat/appendicular

Pelvis

Anterior portion of coxal bone
2 pubic bones come together to form the symphisis pubis (fibro-cartilage joint)
Acetabulum
Cup-like structure on lateral side of coxal bone
Lined with hyaline cartilage
Socket of femur joint (head of femur attaches)
Lower limb - composition
Thigh
Leg
Foot
Lower limb - bones & count
30 total
1 - femur
1 - tibia
1 - fibula
1 - patella
7 - tarsals
5 - metatarsals
14 - phalanges
Femur
Classification/Division/Location/Notes
Long/appendicular

Thigh

Largest bone in the body
Head - proximal end

Distal end:
Medial & lateral condyles - areas of articulation with the tibia
Medial & lateral epicondyle - areas of muscle and ligament attachment for both upper and lower leg muscles
Neck of femur
Narrow area just distal to the head
Most common site for hip fractures
Greater trochanter of femur
Large area lateral to the head of the femur, attachment site for multiple muscles
Medial & lateral condyles (femur)
areas of articulation with the tibia
Medial & lateral epicondyle (femur)
areas of muscle and ligament attachment for both upper and lower leg muscles
Patella
Classification/Division/Location/Notes
Sesamoid/appendicular

Knee

Found in patellar ligament of quadriceps muscle
Tibia
Classification/Division/Location/Notes
Long/appendicular

Leg (medial)

Tibial tuberosity (anterior surface)
Site of attachment for patellar tendon

Proximal end
Medial & lateral condyles (articulate with the femur)

Distal end
Articulates with the ankle
Forms medial malleolus
Fibula
Classification/Division/Location/Notes
Long/appendicular

Leg (lateral)

Articulates with the tibia (not part of the knee joint)

Forms lateral mallelous on distal end
Foot - composition
Ankle
Instep
Toes
Ankle
Tarsal bones (7)
Talus
Short bone
Tarsal bone
Forms part of the ankle
Only tarsal bone that can move freely
Calcaneus
Short bone
Tarsal bone
Forms part of the ankle

Firmly bound to the remaining 5 tarsal bones
Supports the talus
Forms the heel
Metatarsals
Long bones
Form the foot
1st metatarsal articulates with the great toe
Phalanges
Long bones
Great toe (2)
2nd-5th digit (3 each)
Joints - how classified
Classified by the type of tissue that binds the bones at each junction
Types of joints
Fibrous joints
Cartilaginous joints
Synovial joints
Fibrous joints
Bones joined by dense connective tissue
No articulation (synarthrotic)
Fibrous joint types
Sutures
Gomphosis
Syndesmosis (not covered)
Fibrous joint examples
Sutures - flat bones of skull
Gomphosis - joints of teeth with mandible
Gomphosis
is a joint formed by the union of a cone-shaped bony process in a bony socket. Such as the root of a tooth with the maxial or mandible by a periodontal ligament.
Cartilaginous joints
Bones are joined by hyaline or fibro-cartilage
Many are temporary
Cartilaginous joint types
Synchondrosis
Symphysis
Cartilaginous joint examples
Synchondrosis - epiphyseal plate and 1st rib/manubrium
Symphysis - symphysis pubis between coxal bones
Synchondrosis
Bands of hyaline cartilage unite the bones
Many are temporary
Symphysis
Articular structures of a bone are covered with hyaline cartilage and the cartilage is attached to a pad of fibro cartilage
Synovial joint composition
1. Articular cartilage (hyaline)
2. Joint capsule (2 layers)
a. outer layer (dense CT)
b. inner layer (loose CT)
3. Synovial membrane
Synovial membrane
Lined the inside of the joint capsule
Produces synovial fluid.
Inflammation of the membrane causes swelling
Synovial joint types
1. Ball and socket
2. Condyloid
3. Gliding
4. Hinge joint
5. Pivot joint
6. Saddle joint
Synovial joint types (that need to know)
1. Hinge joint
2. Pivot joint
3. Ball and socket joint
Hinge joint example
Elbow / knee
Pivot joint example
Axis/atlas (rotates)
Ball and socket joint example
Shoulder, hip
Layers of the epidermis
Stratum basale
Stratum corneum
Basement membrane
Stratum basale
Deepest layer of epidermis
Rapid cell division at this layer
Stratum corneum
Superficial layer of epidermis
Cell loss at this layer
Calcitonin
Hormone that acts to reduce blood calcium levels.

Specifically, calcitonin acts by:
- Inhibits Ca2+ absorption by the intestines
- Inhibits osteoclast activity in bones
- Inhibits renal tubular cell reabsorption of Ca2+ allowing it to be excreted in the urine
Inhibitor of osteoclast activity
calcitonin