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192 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Skin characteristics
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Composed of 2 layers
Maintains homeostasis Protective covering Contains immune system cells Has sensory receptors Retards water loss by diffusion Synthesizes chemicals (Vitamin D) Excretes small amounts of water |
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Layers of skin
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Epidermis
Dermis Subcutaneous layer (not actually part of the skin) |
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Epidermis - composition
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Stratified squamous epithelium (multiple layers)
Keratinized Lacks blood vessels |
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Melanocytes
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Cells that produce melanin
Found along basement membrane of epidermis |
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Melanin
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Protein with a very dark color
Absorbs light Functions to prevent damage, mostly from UV light |
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Dermis - composition
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Dense irregular connective tissue
Contains muscle fibers (smooth muscle for hair follicles, glands/skeletal muscle in face anchored to dermis) |
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Structures located in the dermis
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Nerve cell receptors
Blood vessels Hair follicles (but is epidermal structure) Glands |
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Subcutaneous layer - composition
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Loose connective tissue
Adipose tissue Contains major blood vessels |
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Subcutaneous layer - function
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Insulate the body
Connect skin to underlying structures |
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Structures of the skin
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Hair follicle
Nails Sebaceous glands Sweat glands |
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Hair follicle
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Tube-like depression where hair forms (contains hair root and shaft)
Formed by epidermal cells (stratified squamous tissue) Extends into the dermis |
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Hair
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Dead epidermal cells, tightly packed
Contains melanin (for color) |
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Hair follicle - associated structures
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Arrector pili muscle (smooth muscle)
Sebaceous glands |
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Nails
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Protective coverings for the more distal phalanges
Structures of the epidermis |
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Nails - components
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Nail plate
Nail bed Lunula |
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Nail plate
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Portion of nail that covers the underlying skin
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Nail bed
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Specialized epitheleal cells that are continuous with the epidermis
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Lunula
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Also known as the cuticle
Most active region of the nail Gives rise to tiny, keratinized scales that become part of the nail plate, pushing it forward (nail growth) |
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Sebaceous glands
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Gland associated with a hair follicle
Duct of gland injects into hair follicle Holocrine gland Secretes sebum Absent on palms and soles |
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Holocrine gland
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Cells of the gland ruptures to release the secretion
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Sebum
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Oily secretion and cellular debris that coats hair
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Types of sweat glands
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Eccrine glands
Apocrine glands Ceruminous glands |
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Eccrine glands - where located
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Dermis
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Eccrine glands - where duct opens
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Skin surface
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Eccrine glands - gland function
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Helps with temperature regulation
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Apocrine glands - where located
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Dermis and subcutaneous layer
on axilla (armpit), groin, face |
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Apocrine glands - where duct opens
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Into hair follicle
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Apocrine glands - gland function
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Responsible for body odor
Believed to secrete pheremones |
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Ceruminous glands - where located
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Ear
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Ceruminous glands - where duct opens
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Into ear canal
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Ceruminous glands - function
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combines with sebum to form a waxy secretion for protection
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Factors affecting skin color
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Genetics
Environmental Physiological |
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Skin color - genetic factors
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Varying amounts of melanin in the cells
- Based on DNA Varying size of the melanin granules - Based on DNA |
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Albinism
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Genetic mutation where the cells lack melanin. The gene that codes for melanin production is not present or derformed.
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Skin color - environmental factors
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Sunlight / UV Light / X-rays
Stimulate melanocytes to produce more melanin Temporary |
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Skin color - physiological factors
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Dilation of dermal blood vessels
Constriction of dermal blood vessels Carotene Jaundice |
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Epidermis - what is found?
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keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium
Hair follicles (penetrate into the dermis, but made of epidermal tissue) Keratin Melanocytes |
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Epidermis - what is not found?
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Blood vessels
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Dermis - what is found?
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Dense irregular connective tissue
Muscle fibers Nerve cell receptors Blood vessels Hair follicles (but is epidermal structure) Sweat glands Sebaceous glands |
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Subcutaneous layer - what is found?
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Loose connective tissue
Adipose tissue Major blood vessels |
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How are bones classified?
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By shape, not size
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Types of bones:
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Long bones
Short bones Flat bones Irregular bones Sesamoid bones (round) |
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Long bones
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Long longitudal axis
Expanded ends |
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Long bones - examples
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Humerus
Femur Phalanges |
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Short bones
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Cube-like, square
Length & width about equal |
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Short bones - examples
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Carpals
Tarsals |
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Flat bones
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Plate-like structures
Broad surfaces |
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Flat bones - examples
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Ribs
Bones of the skull |
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Irregular bones
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Variety of shapes
Usually connected to several other bones |
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Irregular bones - examples
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Vertebra
Facial bones |
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Sesamoid bones
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Small and nodular
Usually embedded within tendons that are adjacent to joints |
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Sesamoid bones - examples
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Patella
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Parts of a long bone
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Epiphysis
Diaphysis Periosteum |
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Epiphysis
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Expanded portion at the end of a long bone
Usually articulates with another bone End is covered by cartilage Made up of mostly spongy bone |
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Diaphysis
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Shaft of the bone
Walls composed mainly of compact bone Hollow cavity, contains marrow |
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Periosteum
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Vascular covering of fibrous connective tissue
Adherent to the bone's surface Continuous with the ligaments and tendons |
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Endosteum
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thin membrane lining the interior of the cavity of a bone
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Spongy bone
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Osteocytes and extracellular matrix
DO NOT cluster around a central canal Osteocytes lie within thin, branching plates Receive nutrition by diffusion from capillaries |
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Compact bone
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Osteocytes and extracellular matrix
Cluster around a central canal Form a cylinder-shaped unit, called osteon |
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Osteon
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Fundamental functional unit of compact bone
Each osteon consists of concentric layers, or lamellae, of compact bone tissue that surround a central canal, the Haversian canal. The Haversian canal contains the bone's nerve and blood supplies |
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Haversian canal
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contains blood vessels and nerves
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Trabeculae
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Thin, branching plates within spongy bone
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Intramembranous ossification
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For formation of broad, flat bones
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Intramembranous ossification - process
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Bone develops within sheet-like layers of fibrous connective tissue (on top or with tissue structures)
Osteoblasts form spongy bone around blood vessels plus all the layers of connective tissue in every direction |
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Intramembranous ossification - examples
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Bones of the skull
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Endochondral ossification
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Formation of long bones
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Endochondral ossification - process (general)
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Structure shaped like the bone develops from masses of hyaline cartilage
Cartilage models grow extensively, then begin to degenerate Periosteum forms Blood vessels invade the structure Connective tissue stem cells become osteoblasts Begins with osteoblasts form compact bone in the space where cartilage was Later, spongy bone is formed in the epiphyses |
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Primary ossification center
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center of the diaphysis
Compact bone grows outward toward each end |
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Secondary ossification center
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Spongy bone is formed in the epiphyses
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Epiphyseal plate
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Thin layer of hyaline cartilage that separates the ossification centers
Also called the growth plate Is replaced with bone as age increases |
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Endochondral ossification - process (length)
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Cartilage cells divide to enlarge the epiphyseal plates at both ends of the bone
Cartilage becomes ossified and forms new bone Results in lengthening of the limb |
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Endochondral ossification - process (width)
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Compact bone is deposited on the outside of existing bone, along the wall of the diaphysis, beneath the periosteum
Increases width of the bone (also increases strength) |
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Types of fractures
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Greenstick
Fissured Comminuted Transverse Oblique Spiral |
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Greenstick fracture
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incomplete break
break occurs on the convex surface of the bend in the bone |
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Fissured fracture
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occurs on the longitudinal axis of the bone
incomplete break |
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Comminuted fracture
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complete fracture, results in multiple bone fragments
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Transverse fracture
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complete break, occurs at right angle to the axis of the bone
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Oblique fracture
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fracture that occurs at an angle other than a right angle to the axis of the bone
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Spiral fracture
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caused by excessive twisting of the bone
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Bone functions
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Support, protection and movement
Blood cell formation (hematopoisis) Inorganic salt storage (NaCl, K, etc) |
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hematopoisis
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Process of blood cell formation
Begins embryonically, moves to liver and spleen, finally to the bone |
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Bone marrow - types
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Red marrow
Yellow marrow |
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Bone marrow
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Soft, net-like mass of connective tissue that is found in the cavity of bones
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Red marrow - function
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active blood cell formation
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Yellow marrow - function
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inactive, fat storage
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Inorganic salt storage
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Extracellular material in bone has collagen and minerals
Most: Calcium Phosphate Other minerals stored: Na, Mg, K, NaCO3 |
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Calcium Phosphate [Ca2(PO4)2] supports
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nerve function
muscle function clot formation |
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Osteoporosis
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Increased osteoblast activity when blood calcium levels are normal
Makes compact bone porous Most often found in post-menopausal women |
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Number of bones in the body
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206 (typically)
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Divisions of the skeleton
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Axial
Appendicular |
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Axial skeleton
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Head
Neck Trunk |
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Axial skeleton bones
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Skull (8)
Facial (14) Middle ear (3) (bilateral) Hyoid (1) Vertebral column (26) Thoracic cage (1 sternum, 12 ribs (bilateral)) |
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Appendicular skeleton
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Upper limbs
Lower limbs Bones that anchor the limbs to the axial skeleton |
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Appendicular skeleton bones
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Each side:
Pectoral girdle (2) Upper limb (30) Pelvic girdle (3) Lower limb (30) |
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Process
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Prominent projection on a bone
usually tapered or pointed |
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Condyle
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A round process
Usually articulates with another bone to form a joint |
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Foramen
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An opening through a bone
Usually serves as a passageway for a blood vessel or nerve |
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Fossa
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A deep depression in the surface of a bone
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Tubercle
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A small, knob-like process
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Epicondyle
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A projection situated above a condyle
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Tuberosity
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A knob-like process
Smaller than a trochanter, larger than a tubercle |
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Trochanter
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A very large process on a bone
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Suture
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Interlocking joint between bones
Held together by dense connective tissue Only found in flat bones |
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Sinus
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Cavity in a bone
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Coronal suture
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Between frontal and parietal bones
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Sagittal suture
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between left and right parietal bones
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Squamous suture
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Between parietal and temporal bones
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Lambdoid suture
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Between parietal and occipital bones
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Frontal bone
Classification/Division/Location/Notes |
Flat/Axial
Anterior portion of the cranium |
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Occipital bone
Classification/Division/Location/Notes |
Flat/Axial
Posterior/inferior portion of the cranium Articulates with C1 vertebra Contains foramen magnum |
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Foramen magnum
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Opening in the occipital bone at the base of the skull that the spinal cord passes through
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Parietal bone (L&R)
Classification/Division/Location/Notes |
Flat/Axial
Lateral sides and roof of the cranium |
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Temporal bone (L&R)
Classification/Division/Location/Notes |
Flat/Axial
Side of cranium, above ear Contains External acoustic meatus (ear hole) Mandibular fossa (forms joint with mandible) Mastoid process Internal ear structures Canal for the major artery to the brain |
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Maxilla
Classification/Division/Location/Notes |
Flat/Axial
Upper jaw Contains sockets for upper teeth |
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Zygomatic (L&R)
Classification/Division/Location/Notes |
Flat/Axial
Cheek bones Form lateral walls & floors of orbits of eyes |
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Nasal (L&R)
Classification/Division/Location/Notes |
Flat/Axial
Nose Attachment point for hyaline cartilage that forms the nose |
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Mandible
Classification/Division/Location/Notes |
Irregular/Axial
Lower jaw Ramus (branch) points superior Coronoid process (anterior) Mandibular condyle (posterior) Contains sockets for lower teeth |
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Hyoid
Classification/Division/Location/Notes |
Flat/Axial
Anterior neck, superior to thyroid cartilage Only bone that doesn't articulate with another bone Supports the tongue, helps tongue move when swallowing |
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Vertebral column - regions & number of vertebra
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Cervical (7)
Thoracic (12) Lumbar (5) Sacral (5) - fused into 1 Coccygeal (4) - fused into 1 26 total Bones are irregular/axial |
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C1 vertebra
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Atlas
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C2 vertebra
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Axis
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Thoracic cage
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Ribs (12) (bilateral)
Sternum |
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Ribs 1-7
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True ribs
Articulate directly with the sternum |
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Ribs 8-12
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False ribs
Do not directly articulate with the sternum |
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Ribs 11-12
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Floating ribs, no connection on the anterior side to the sternum
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Ribs 8-10
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Anterior cartilage joins with cartilage of rib 7
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Sternum - parts
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Manubrium
Body Xyphoid process |
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Manubrium
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Superior portion of sternum
Articulates with the clavicles Articulates with rib #1 |
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Body
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Articulates with ribs 2-7
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Xyphoid process
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Inferior end of sternum
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Clavicle (L&R)
Classification/Division/Location/Notes |
Long/appendicular
Upper chest Articulates with sternum (manubrium) on proximal side Articulates with scapula on lateral side at the acromion process Only bone that attaches arm to the body Only long bone that runs horizontally |
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Scapula (L&R)
Classification/Division/Location/Notes |
Flat/appendicular
Shoulder (posterior) There is no articulation between the scapula and the axial skeleton Acromion process (superior, lateral) articulates with the clavicle Glenoid fossa articulates with the head of the humerous |
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Upper limb - composition
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Arm
Forearm Hand |
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Arm
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Humerous
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Forearm
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Ulna and radius
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Hand
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Carpals
Metacarpals Phalanges |
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Upper limb - number of bones
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30 total
1 - Humerus 1 - Ulna 1 - Radius 8 - Carpal 5 - Metacarpal 14 - Phalanges |
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Humerus (L&R)
Classification/Division/Location/Notes |
Long/appendicular
Head - proximal end (articulates with Glenoid fossa of scapula) Greater tubercle on lateral side for attachment of shoulder muscles Lateral condyle - articulates with radius Medial condyle - articulates with ulna Coronoid fossa (anterior) - receives Ulna when lower arm flexed Olecranon fossa (posterior) - receives Ulna when lower arm extended (deeper of 2 fossa) |
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Coronoid fossa
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On distal, anterior surface of humerus
receives Ulna when lower arm flexed |
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Olecranon fossa
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On distal, posterior surface of humerus
receives Ulna when lower arm extended (deeper of 2 fossa of humerus) |
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Radius (L&R)
Classification/Division/Location/Notes |
Long/appendicular
Forearm Head - proximal end, articulates with lateral condyle of humerus Thumb side in anatomical position Styloid process on distal end |
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Ulna (L&R)
Classification/Division/Location/Notes |
Long/appendicular
Forearm Head - distal end (only bone in body with head at distal end) Trochlear notch at distal end - articulates with olecranon process and coronoid process of humerus |
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Only bone in body with head at distal end
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Ulna
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Trochlear notch
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At proximal end of ulna
C-like opening Articulates with distal humerus Fits between olecranon process and coronoid process |
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Carpals
Classification/Division/Location/Notes |
Short/appendicular
Wrist 2 rows of 4 bones Rows are concave anteriorly |
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Metacarpals
Classification/Division/Location/Notes |
Long/appendicular
Hand |
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Phalanges
Classification/Division/Location/Notes |
Long/appendicular
Hand 14 total Thumb has 2, other fingers have 3 |
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Pelvic girdle - composition
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Composed of 2 halves, called coxal bone
- Ilium - Ischium - Pubis |
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Coxal bone
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One of two halves of the pelvis
Composed of: - Ilium - Ischium - Pubis |
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Ilium
Classification/Division/Location/Notes |
Flat/appendicular
Pelvis Superior portion of coxal bone Forms joint with sacrum (sacroiliac joint) Site of attachment of inguinal ligament |
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Ischium
Classification/Division/Location/Notes |
Flat/appendicular
Pelvis Inferior portion of coxal bone L-Shaped Ischial tuberosity (butt bone) Ischial spine (points medially) |
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Pubis
Classification/Division/Location/Notes |
Flat/appendicular
Pelvis Anterior portion of coxal bone 2 pubic bones come together to form the symphisis pubis (fibro-cartilage joint) |
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Acetabulum
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Cup-like structure on lateral side of coxal bone
Lined with hyaline cartilage Socket of femur joint (head of femur attaches) |
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Lower limb - composition
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Thigh
Leg Foot |
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Lower limb - bones & count
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30 total
1 - femur 1 - tibia 1 - fibula 1 - patella 7 - tarsals 5 - metatarsals 14 - phalanges |
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Femur
Classification/Division/Location/Notes |
Long/appendicular
Thigh Largest bone in the body Head - proximal end Distal end: Medial & lateral condyles - areas of articulation with the tibia Medial & lateral epicondyle - areas of muscle and ligament attachment for both upper and lower leg muscles |
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Neck of femur
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Narrow area just distal to the head
Most common site for hip fractures |
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Greater trochanter of femur
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Large area lateral to the head of the femur, attachment site for multiple muscles
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Medial & lateral condyles (femur)
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areas of articulation with the tibia
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Medial & lateral epicondyle (femur)
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areas of muscle and ligament attachment for both upper and lower leg muscles
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Patella
Classification/Division/Location/Notes |
Sesamoid/appendicular
Knee Found in patellar ligament of quadriceps muscle |
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Tibia
Classification/Division/Location/Notes |
Long/appendicular
Leg (medial) Tibial tuberosity (anterior surface) Site of attachment for patellar tendon Proximal end Medial & lateral condyles (articulate with the femur) Distal end Articulates with the ankle Forms medial malleolus |
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Fibula
Classification/Division/Location/Notes |
Long/appendicular
Leg (lateral) Articulates with the tibia (not part of the knee joint) Forms lateral mallelous on distal end |
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Foot - composition
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Ankle
Instep Toes |
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Ankle
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Tarsal bones (7)
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Talus
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Short bone
Tarsal bone Forms part of the ankle Only tarsal bone that can move freely |
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Calcaneus
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Short bone
Tarsal bone Forms part of the ankle Firmly bound to the remaining 5 tarsal bones Supports the talus Forms the heel |
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Metatarsals
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Long bones
Form the foot 1st metatarsal articulates with the great toe |
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Phalanges
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Long bones
Great toe (2) 2nd-5th digit (3 each) |
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Joints - how classified
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Classified by the type of tissue that binds the bones at each junction
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Types of joints
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Fibrous joints
Cartilaginous joints Synovial joints |
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Fibrous joints
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Bones joined by dense connective tissue
No articulation (synarthrotic) |
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Fibrous joint types
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Sutures
Gomphosis Syndesmosis (not covered) |
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Fibrous joint examples
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Sutures - flat bones of skull
Gomphosis - joints of teeth with mandible |
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Gomphosis
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is a joint formed by the union of a cone-shaped bony process in a bony socket. Such as the root of a tooth with the maxial or mandible by a periodontal ligament.
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Cartilaginous joints
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Bones are joined by hyaline or fibro-cartilage
Many are temporary |
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Cartilaginous joint types
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Synchondrosis
Symphysis |
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Cartilaginous joint examples
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Synchondrosis - epiphyseal plate and 1st rib/manubrium
Symphysis - symphysis pubis between coxal bones |
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Synchondrosis
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Bands of hyaline cartilage unite the bones
Many are temporary |
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Symphysis
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Articular structures of a bone are covered with hyaline cartilage and the cartilage is attached to a pad of fibro cartilage
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Synovial joint composition
|
1. Articular cartilage (hyaline)
2. Joint capsule (2 layers) a. outer layer (dense CT) b. inner layer (loose CT) 3. Synovial membrane |
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Synovial membrane
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Lined the inside of the joint capsule
Produces synovial fluid. Inflammation of the membrane causes swelling |
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Synovial joint types
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1. Ball and socket
2. Condyloid 3. Gliding 4. Hinge joint 5. Pivot joint 6. Saddle joint |
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Synovial joint types (that need to know)
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1. Hinge joint
2. Pivot joint 3. Ball and socket joint |
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Hinge joint example
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Elbow / knee
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Pivot joint example
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Axis/atlas (rotates)
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Ball and socket joint example
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Shoulder, hip
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Layers of the epidermis
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Stratum basale
Stratum corneum Basement membrane |
|
Stratum basale
|
Deepest layer of epidermis
Rapid cell division at this layer |
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Stratum corneum
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Superficial layer of epidermis
Cell loss at this layer |
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Calcitonin
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Hormone that acts to reduce blood calcium levels.
Specifically, calcitonin acts by: - Inhibits Ca2+ absorption by the intestines - Inhibits osteoclast activity in bones - Inhibits renal tubular cell reabsorption of Ca2+ allowing it to be excreted in the urine |
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Inhibitor of osteoclast activity
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calcitonin
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