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200 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Gland
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set of tissue that produces a substance required by the body
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Hormone
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chemical messenger
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Target Tissue
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site of the response
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Action
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the response
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Homeostasis
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controlled sameness; fluctuation between highest and lowest possible
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Autocrine
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produce a substance that is used by the cells making it; pretty much all cells can fall under this category
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Paracrine
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produce a substance that is used by cells right next to them; ex: inhibin used by testes
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Exocrine
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produce a substance (hormone) that is secreted to the outside of the body; ex:sudoriferous glands, bile glands, digestive system, sweat glands, etc
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Endocrine
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produce a substance (hormone) that is secreted to the inside of the body; hormones are always injected into the bloodstream
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Negative Feedback
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works to inhibit the stimulus; most common type; safest thing around; ex: sugar- insulin/glucagon relationship
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Positive Feedback
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works to increase the stimulus; pretty rare; can be dangerous; ex: labor- hormone is oxytocin which causes contractions and stimulus is uterine contractions; ex: allergic reactions- hormone is histamine and stimulus is tissue damage
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Feed-Forward Control
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mechanism initiates a step down the chain of events (jumps steps); most rare type; wasteful; ex: digestion- hungry => start salivating; ex: menstrual cycle- ovum begins maturing, skip steps 2 and 3 and starts at 4 and 5
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Pineal Gland
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~1cm in diameter; melatonin (derived from serotonin and w/o sunlight you secrete); A- circadian rhythms; TT- brain
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Thymus
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pretty large gland until puberty, at which point it begins and continues to atrophy; secretes thymosin; A- development of immune response (immune system and t-cells); TT- immune system (we assume)
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Testes
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secretes testosterone; A- secondary male sex characteristics; TT- every cell in the body
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Ovaries
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secretes estrogens (A- secondary female sex characteristics; TT- every cell in the body) and progesterone (A- pregnancy hormone; TT- primarily uterus)
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Placenta
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secretes 3 separate hormones; human chorionic gonadotropin [HCG] (1st trimester; A- keeps corpus luteum alive; TT- ovaries); estrogens and progesterone (after decline of 1st trimester; 2nd and 3rd trimester; A and TT- see above)
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Thyroid
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secretes 3 hormones (2 are grouped); triiodothyronine [T3] and tetraiodothronine [T4] (aka- thyrooid hormone, thyroxine, levothyroxine; A- increases metabolism [increases oxygen concentration in tissue]; TT- all cells); calcitonin (negative feedback system; A- calcium into storage; TT- bones, more specifically osteoblasts [build bone])
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Parathyroid Glands
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main hormone-parathyroid hormone (PTH); A- place calcium into blood (opposite of calcitonin); TT- osteoclasts (break down bone)
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Pancreas
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has both endocrine and exocrine fx; in ref. to endocrine- Islets of Langerhans produce: Glucagon (produced by alpha islet cells; A- place sugar into blood; TT- adipose cells, muscles, and liver) and Insulin (produced by beta islet cells; A- place sugar into storage; TT- adipose cells, muscles, and liver)
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Heart
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atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP): A- increases sodium secretion; inhibits aldosterone secretion TT- kidneys
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Gastrin
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gastrointestinal mucosa; A- digestive regulation; TT- stomach and intestines
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Gherellin
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gastrointestinal mucosa; A- increases appetite; TT- hypothalamus
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Cholecystokinin (CCK)
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gastrointestinal mucosa; A- bile secretion; TT- liver
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Secretin
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gastrointestinal mucosa; A- decreases acid production and increases alkaline content; TT- pancreas and stomach
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Adrenal Cortex
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steroids; 3 zones: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, zona reticularis
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Zona Glomerulosa
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Mineralocorticoids: electrolyte balance; aldosterone (A- reabsorption of sodium TT- kidneys)
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Zona Fasciculata
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Glucocorticoids: cortisol, cortisone, corticosterone; A- gluconeogenesis (increases lipid metabolism); TT- general (every cell in the body)
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Zona Reticularis
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Gonadocorticoids: androgens (testosterone derivatives)
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Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)
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1.) decrease in BP to kidneys- renin-enzyme 2.) angiotensin converted to angiotensin I w/ catalyst renin 3.) angiotensin I converted to
angiotensin II w/ catalyst angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) 4.) Angiotensin II- constricts blood vessels and causes secretion of aldosterone |
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Adrenal Medulla
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autonomic nervous system (ANS), which is broken down to sympathetic and parasympathetic
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Sympathetic Nervous System
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Epinephrine (Adrenaline): A- fight/flight response; TT- heart rate (increases), blood vessels (constrict), lungs (bronchi dilate), digestive tract (cessation of motility), kidneys (stop functioning), bladder (voids), pupils (dilate), penis (erection)
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
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Norepinephrine: A- rest/digest; TT- heart rate (slows down), GI (motility resumes), kidney (functions again), penis (ejaculate), and no affect on blood vessels, bronchi, or pupils
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Pituitary Gland
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broken down into Neurohypophysis (posterior lobe) and Adenohypophysis (anterior lobe)
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Neurohypophysis
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all hormones produced and directly controlled by the hypothalamus; Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): A- reabsorption of water from urine TT- kidney; Oxytocin: A- uterine contractions TT- uterus
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Adenohypophysis
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produces own hormones; directly controlled by hypothalamus; produces growth hormone (GH), LH, FSH, prolactin, thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
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Growth Hormone (GH)
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A- bone and muscle growth; TT- bone and muscle; alternative- HGH (growth after puberty)
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LH and FSH
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A- gamete development; TT- gonads
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Prolactin
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A- mammary development during puberty and lactation during and after pregnancy; TT- mammary glands
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Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
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A- T3 and T4 production; TT- thyroid gland
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Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
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A- cortisol production; TT- zona fasciculata
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Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
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A- stimulate melanocytes to produce melanin; TT- melanocytes in the skin
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Chemoreceptors
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work by chemically bonding to the stimulus; chemical must be in aqueous solution; ex: taste
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Mechanoreceptors
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work by physically deforming the receptor to create the action potential; ex: discriminative touch, pressure, equilibrium, etc
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Photoreceptors
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respond to light; will never adapt
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Nociceptors
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tissue damage; free nerve endings; will never adapt; feel pain until you fix the problem
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Proprioceptors
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stretching of tissue; located in joints, tendons, and ligaments, etc
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Osmoreceptors
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sense of fluid pressure in the back of the body; ex: located in the bladder, stomach, arteries, veins, etc
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Thermoreceptors
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specialized nociceptors, hot (start firing off at 77 degrees F and above; any temp above 118 and you'll stop being hot and begin feeling burning pain) and cold (start firing and increasing activity between 50-104 degrees F; anything below 50 degrees F you get freezing pain; initially: anesthetic affect; adapts faster than hot)
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Discriminative Touch
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Merkel's Disk: mechanoreceptor; adapt very quickly; hands and feet have a much higher population
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Touch
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Krause's End Bulb: mechanoreceptor; adapt quickly, but slower than and located deeper than Merkel's Disk; Meissner Corpuscle
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Pressure
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Ruffini's Corpuscle: adapt very slowly; Meissner Corpuscle; located much further inside skin than Merkel's Disk
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Spatial Orientation
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proprioceptors: don't adapt
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Fluid Pressure
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blood pressure: baroreceptors- located in all arteries, specifically carotid, heart, and kidneys
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Fibrous Layer of Eyeball
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protection; cornea; sclera
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Vascular Layer of Eyeball
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provides blood; choroid; ciliary body (suspend lens in eye); iris
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Inner Layer of Eyeball
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location of photoreceptors; retina; optic nerve and optic blood vessels (which comprise the optic disc)
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Anterior Chamber of Eyeball
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filled w/ aqueous humor (extremely watery liquid)
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Lens Capsule of Eyeball
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lens suspended by ciliary filaments
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Posterior Chamber of Eyeball
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vitreous humor (consistency of very soft gelatin)
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Optic Disc
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has no photoreceptors; blind spot
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Macula Lutea
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dense population of cones; highest density of rods is in a ring around macula lutea
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Fovea Centralis
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highest population of cones; focusing point for day vision; center of macula lutea
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Cones
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capable of detecting color; only function in very good light
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Rods
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capable of detecting black/white; can function at a higher range than cones
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Olfactory (CN I)
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conducts impulses from nose to brain; fx: sense of smell
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Optic (CN II)
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conducts impulses from eye to brain; fx: vision
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Oculomotor (CN III)
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conducts impulses from brain to eye muscles; fx: eye movements
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Trochlear (CN IV)
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conducts impulses from brain to external eye muscles; fx:eye movements
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Trigeminal (CN V)
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conducts impulses from skin and mucous membrane of head and from teeth to brain, also from brain to chewing muscles; fx: sensations of face, scalp, and teeth, also chewing movements
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Abducens (CN VI)
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conducts impulses from brain to external eye muscles; fx: eye movements
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Facial (CN VII)
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conducts impulses from taste buds of tongue to brain and from brain to face muscles; fx: sense of taste and contraction of muscles of facial expression
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Vestibulocochlear (CN VIII)
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conducts impulses from ear to brain; fx: hearing and sense of balance
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Glossopharyngeal (CN IX)
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conducts impulses from throat and taste buds of tongue to brain and from brain to throat muscles and salivary glands; fx: sensations of throat, taste, swallowing movements, secretion of saliva
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Vagus (CN X)
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conducts impulses from throat, larynx, and organs in thoracic and abdominal cavities to brain and from brain to muscles of throat and to organs in thoracic and abdominal cavities; fx: sensations of throat and larynx and of thoracic and abdominal organs, also swallowing, voice production, slowing of heartbeat, acceleration of peristalsis (gut movements)
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Accessory (CN XI)
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conducts impulses from brain to certain shoulder and neck muscles; fx: shoulder movements and turning movements of head
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Hypoglossal (CN XII)
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conducts impulses from brain to muscles of tongue; fx: tongue movements
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Brachial Plexus
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C5-C8; controls arm movements
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Dendrite
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receptor; where nerve impulse (action potential) starts
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Cell Body
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responsible for processing information; gray colored
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Axon
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vary in length; responsible for transporting information
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Myelin Sheath
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layer of fat (insulation); white colored
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Nodes of Ranvier
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Parts of the axon that are exposed/not covered by myelin
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Terminal End Fibers
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contain sacks of neurotransmitters
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Synapse
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empty space between 2 neurons
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Afferent Neuron
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sensory neuron; carry an impulse towards the CNS; associated w/ a sense
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Interneuron
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processing and storing information; only found in the CNS
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Efferent Neuron
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motor neuron; carry an impulse away from the CNS; associated w/ a muscle or gland
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Astrocyte
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star shaped cells; comprise the blood-brain barrier; stromal- glial cell
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Microglia
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phagocytic cells; stromal- glial cell
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Ependymal
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produce CSF; stromal- glial cell
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Satellite Cells
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support neurons in the PNS; stromal- glial cell
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Oligodendrocytes
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produce myelin in the CNS; stromal- glial cell
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Schwann Cells
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produce myelin in the PNS; stromal- glial cell
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Normal Reflex Pathway
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1.) sensory neuron 2.) afferent neuron 3.) dorsal horn 4.) brain 5.) ventral horn 6.) efferent neuron 7.) motor neuron
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Reflex Arc
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1.) sensory neuron 2.) afferent neuron 3.) dorsal horn 4.) interneuron of the spine (also sends signal to brain to let it know it's taken care of) 5.) ventral horn 6.) efferent neuron 7.) motor neuron
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Endoneurium (tract)
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delicate connective tissue covering individual axon bundles
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Perineurium (tract)
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connective tissue covering a bunch of axons (fascicle)
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Epineurium (tract)
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fibrous connective tissue covering a bundle of fascicles and their blood vessels
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Gray Matter
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large numbers of neuron bodies; process and store information
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White Matter
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large number of axons placed together; transport information
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Frontal Lobe
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personality, memory, etc
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Parietal Lobe
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taste, smell, and memory associated w/ those two
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Temporal Lobe
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sound/production, hearing, language, and memory associated w/ those
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Occipital Lobe
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vision and memory associated
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Sulcus
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valley
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Gyrus
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ridge
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Cerebellum
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coordination of voluntary movement
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Thalamus
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pain and relay station for all sensory input
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Hypothalamus
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visceral functions and endocrine control
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Pons
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means bridge; nerve fibers cross over (L->R and R->L)
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Medulla Oblongata
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heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure
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Dura Mater
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literally means hard mother; extremely thick, fibrous connective tissue; friction and stop foreign objects; below is subdural space
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Arachnoid Mater
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below is subarachnoid space- connecting fibers and CSF
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Layers of Protection
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hair, skin, bone, meninges, blood-brain barrier, CSF
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Pia Mater
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very delicate layer of connective tissue resting directly on top of the CNS
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Blood-Brain Barrier
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layer of cells separating the CNS from the blood vessels; astrocytes
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Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
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produced by ependymal cells; CSF is isolated from rest of body
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Mechanical Digestion
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physically break food down into smaller pieces; main purpose is to increase surface area; done through mastication (w/ teeth) and peristalsis (stomach)
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Absorption
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transferring usable portion of food into the bloodstream
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Elimination
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remove unusable portion of food from the body
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Alimentary Canal
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entire GI tract; considered to be outside the body
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Peristalsis
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rhythmic contraction of smooth muscle in the GI tract
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Mucosa
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mucous membrane; divided into 3 sub-layers; layer of GI tract
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Sub-mucosa
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thicker than mucosa; contains nerves, blood vessels, glands, etc; layer of GI tract
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Muscularis
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smooth muscle layer, circular layer, longitudinal layer, oblique layer; layer of GI tract
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Crown (tooth)
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enamel (hardest and most chemically stable substance in the body); dentin (consistency of bone); pulp cavity
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Root (tooth)
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cementum (make sure tooth stays in place); dentin; pulp cavity
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Neck
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at gum-line; 2 separate layers sutured together; dentin; pulp cavity
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Tongue
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mass of skeletal muscle; no insertion (inserts on itself); superior surface has papillae; inferior surface has mucous membrane w/ a lot of blood vessels
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Vallate
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10-12 large papillae at the dorsal end; has taste buds
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Fungiform
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middle of tongue; has taste buds
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Filiform
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around sides and tip; has taste buds
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Foliate
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everywhere on the tongue; texture
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Parotid Gland
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serous saliva; no mucous; salivary gland
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Submandibular Gland
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medial to last molar; 50/50 serous/mucous; salivary gland
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Sublingual Gland
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below the tongue where jaw ends; mucous; salivary gland
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Functions of Saliva
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lubrication; amylases (start off carbohydrate digestion)
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Pharynx
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deglutition moves a bolus (mass of food) through the fauces into the pharynx
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Esophagus
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mucous lined tube designed to transport food from pharynx to the stomach; mucosa designed to withstand abrasion (made of simple squamous epithelial cells)
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Muscularis of Esophagus
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upper 1/3 composed of skeletal muscle; middle 1/3 is 50/50 skeletal and smooth muscle; terminal 1/3 is purely smooth muscle
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Upper Esophageal Sphincter
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at opening after pharynx; stop air from going down
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Lower Esophageal Sphincter
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aka: cardiac sphincter; located where esophagus ends and stomach begins; stops food from going up; if it doesn't close properly 1x = heart burn, multiple times = acid reflux, and often = gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)
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Stomach
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mucous lined sac for storage of food until it is digested; mucosa: designed in folds called rugae; muscularis: 3 layers of smooth muscle
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Types of Cells in the Stomach
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1.) mucous neck cells 2.) chief cells 3.) parietal cells 4.) endocrine cells
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Chief Cells
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gastric juices: pepsin- breaks down proteins
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Parietal Cells
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HCl (hydrochloric acid)
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Endocrine Cells
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1.) gastrin 2.) gherellin
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Stomach Sphincters
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1.) cardiac sphincter 2.) pyloric sphincter
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Chyme
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end product of digestion in the stomach; extremely acidic; pH of ~3.0; white in color
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Small Intestine
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~21' long and approximately 1" in diameter (15' longer than large intestine); comprised of duodenum, jejunum, and ilium
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Duodenum
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1st portion; ~10-12" in length; digestion continues: fat still has to be digested (it's not digested yet b/c it's hydrophobic and every enzyme thus far has been hydrophilic), common bile duct connects from liver to gallbladder, bile emulsifies fat, and pancreatic juices are being excreted into duodenum
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Jejunum
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~8' in length
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Ilium
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~12' in length
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Sphincters of Small Intestine
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1.) pyloric sphincter 2.) ileocecal valve
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Mucosa of Small Intestine
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villi (projections from the wall of the small intestine; each villus has its own arteriole, venule, capillary bed, and lymph duct; protein, carbohydrates, and any vitamins/nutrients that are dissolvable in water
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Lymph Vessels
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fat and fat soluble products
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Microvilli
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projecting from interior wall of each epithelial cell; ~1700 per cell
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Large Intestine
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6' in length and 2.5" in diameter; comprised of cecum (vermiform appendix, which has no fx in humans), ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colons, and rectum; major fx: reabsorb water and electrolytes
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Liver
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endocrine functions; exocrine fx: bile production and cholesterol (high density lipoproteins [HDL], LDL, vLDL); tests look at levels of HDL/LDL; fat => LDL => bile
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Gallbladder
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main fx: store and concentrate bile; bile from here is ~8-10x stronger than bile from liver
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Pancreas
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comprised of islets of langerhaans, acinar cells, and pancreatic juices
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Islets of Langerhaans
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responsible for endocrine functions of pancreas
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Acinar Cells
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responsible for exocrine fx/pancreatic juices
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Pancreatic Juices
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finish off any digestion left in small intestine; lipases- fat digestion
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Functions of Muscular System
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1.) movement 2.) heat production
3.) posture |
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Skeletal Muscle
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voluntary; striated; capable of strong contractions; tire easily; basic energy sources: carbohydrates, fat, protein
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Smooth Muscle
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involuntary; non-striated; weak contractions; sustained duration of contractions; basic energy sources: carbohydrates, fat, and protein (never get here unless you didn't eat for days and days
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Cardiac Muscle
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involuntary; striated; strong contractions; never tire; basic energy source: saturated fat only
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Endomysium
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c.t. that surrounds each muscle fiber individually
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Perimysium
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c.t. that surrounds each fascicle (bundle of fibers)
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Epimysium
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c.t. that surrounds entire muscle
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Ligaments
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c.t. that connects bone to bone
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Tendons
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c.t. that connects muscle to bone
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Apneurosis
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c.t. that links muscle to another muscle
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Parallel-shaped Muscles
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fibers run parallel to each other for the length of the muscle; ex: sartorius/rectus abdominus
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Convergent-shaped Muscles
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one starting point, fibers spread out at the other end; ex: pectoralis
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Unipennate-shaped Muscles
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feather-like; fibers extend from a spine
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Bipennate-shaped Muscles
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feather-like; fascicles extending to both sides from a central; ex: rectus femori
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Multipennate-shaped Muscles
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feather-like; fascicles have a central point of attachment on one side; ex: deltoid
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Circular-shaped Muscles
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normally line orifices/sphincters; ex: orbicularis oris
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Spiral-shaped Muscles
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fascicles twist several times between the 2 points of attachment; ex: latismus dorsi
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Attachment Points
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1.) origin: point of attachment that doesn't move 2.) insertion: point of attachment that does move
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Muscle Fiber
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1.) sarcoplasm 2.) sarcoplasmic reticulum 3.) sarcolemma
4.) sarcomere |
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Sarcoplasm
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specialized cytoplasm; combined cytoplasm from a lot of muscle cells; contain a much higher than normal mitochondria count
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Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
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endoplasmic reticulum; contains a very high affinity and amount of Ca2+
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Sarcolemma
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plasma membrane of skeletal muscle cells
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Sarcomere
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functional unit of a muscle fiber; ~15000/muscle fiber; ~80% contracted length; comprised of thick and thin filaments, A-band, H-zone, I-band, myosin, actin, tropomyosin, and troponin
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Filaments
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thick (made of myosin) and thin (made of actin, tropomyosin, and troponin)
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A-band
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portion of sarcomere containing thick filaments
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H-zone
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portion of sarcomere containing only thick filaments
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I-band
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portion of sarcomere containing only thin filaments and z-line
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Myosin
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thick filaments only; high affinity for actin; shaped like a golf club
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Actin
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comprises the base structure of thin filaments
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Tropomyosin
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sheath covering active sites on thin filaments
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Troponin
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holds the tropomyosin sheath in place
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Excitation Phase of Contraction of a Muscle Fiber
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1.) signal traveling down the motor neuron and terminates at the neuromuscular junction 2.) acetylcholine (Ach) is secreted by the neuron into the NMJ 3.) electrical impulse generated and discharged across the sarcolemma
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Contraction Phase of Contraction of a Muscle Fiber
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1.) Ca 2+ ions released from the SR in response to electricity 2.) Ca 2+ binds to troponin causing tropomyosin to no longer be held in place 3.) myosin heads bind to now open actin sites and ratchet the head inwards resulting in the thin filaments being pulled together 4.) w/ energy, myosin unbinds from actin and moves over to the next binding site
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Relaxation Phase of Contraction of a Muscle Fiber
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1.) within milliseconds of release, the SR starts pumping Ca 2+ ions back in (SR has a much higher affinity for Ca 2+ in comparison to troponin) 2.) troponin reverts back to anchoring tropomyosin to the thin filaments 3.) myosin head releases actin but the next active site is no longer available 4.) Thin filaments slide back out, sarcomere relaxes
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Respiration and Energy Production
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Glucose => 2 Pyruvic Acids + 4 ATP; Oxygen Is Present: 2 ATP for transferring 2 Pyruvates into mitochondria, 34 ATP produced in mitochondria; No Oxygen Present: 2 Pyruvates => 2 Pyruvic Acid => 2 Lactic Acid => 6 Temporary ATP
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