A&p Final

Front 1

Hierarchy of human complexity (8 levels in order)

Back 1

Atoms --> molecules --> organelles --> cells --> tissues --> organs --> organ systems --> organism

Front 2

Characteristics of life (8)

Back 2

1. Maintaining boundaries

2. Movement

3. Responsiveness

4. Digestion

5. Metabolism

6. Excretion

7. Reproduction

8. Growth

Front 3

Metabolism

Back 3

Sum total of all chemical reactions that occur in the body.

Front 4

Homeostasis (and control mechanisms)

Back 4

Relatively stable internal conditions.

Controlled by negative feedback mechanisms (most common) or positive feedback mechanisms.

Front 5

3 planes of the body

Back 5

1. Sagittal plane - vertical plane that divides the body into right and left parts.

2. Transverse/Horizontal plane - runs horizontally from right to left dividing the body into superior and inferior parts.

3. Frontal plane - vertical plane dividing the body into anterior and posterior parts.

Front 6

Superior vs. Inferior

Back 6

Superior (cranial) - toward the head end or upper part of the body

Inferior (caudal) - away from the head end or toward the lower part of the body

Front 7

Anterior vs. Posterior

Back 7

Anterior (ventral) - toward the front of the body

Posterior (dorsal) - toward the back of the body

Front 8

Medial vs. Lateral vs. Intermediate

Back 8

Medial - toward the midline of the body

Lateral - away from the midline of the body

Intermediate - between a more medial and a more lateral structure

Front 9

Proximal vs. Distal

Back 9

Proximal - closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

Distal - farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

Front 10

Superficial (external) vs. deep (internal)

Back 10

Superficial (external) - toward or at the body surface

Deep (internal) - away from the body surface more internal

Front 11

The diaphragm separates what two body cavities?

Back 11

Thoracic cavity and abdominal cavity

Front 12

What is the smallest part of an element?

Back 12

Atom

Front 13

What are the parts of an atom?

Back 13

Nucleus - contains protons and neutrons and is positively charged

Protons - positive charge, 1 atomic mass unit

Neutrons - neutral charge, 1 atomic mass unit

Electrons - negative charge, 0 atomic mass unit

Front 14

Atomic number

Back 14

Equal to the number of protons in an atom's nucleus

Front 15

Mass number

Back 15

The sum of the masses of an atom's protons and neutrons

Front 16

Isotopes

Back 16

Variations of elements in which there are the same number of protons and electrons but different numbers of neutrons.

Front 17

Atomic weight

Back 17

An average of the relative weights or mass numbers of all the Isotopes of an element

Front 18

Electron shells

Back 18

The region of space around a nucleus where electrons are. There are 7 possible shells numbered 1 to 7 from the nucleus outward.

Front 19

Octet rule or the rule of eights

Back 19

Atoms tend to have eight chemically reactive electrons in their outermost valence shell.

Front 20

Ionic bond

Back 20

Involves a transfer of electrons

Front 21

Covalent bond

Back 21

Involves a sharing of electrons

Front 22

Anion vs Cation

Back 22

During the forming of an ionic bond the atom that gains electrons acquires a negative charge and is called an anion. The atom that loses electrons gains a positive charge and is called a cation.

Front 23

Polar covalent bond vs. Nonpolar covalent bond

Back 23

A polar covalent bond has unequal sharing of electrons and a slight negative charge at one end of a molecule and a slight positive charge at the other end. A nonpolar covalent bond has equal sharing of electrons and a balanced charge among atoms.

Front 24

Molecular weight

Back 24

The sum of the atomic weights in a molecule

Front 25

Hydrogen bond

Back 25

A weak intermolecular attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom in one molecule and a slightly negative oxygen or nitrogen in another.

Front 26

Characteristics of water (6)

Back 26

1. 50-75% of the body is water

2. Solvency - most substances dissolve in water

3. Cohesion - water molecules "stick" to each other.

4. Adhesion - water "sticks" to other substances.

5. Chemical reactivity - water is important in dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions

6. Thermal stability - water gains and loses heat very slowly.

Front 27

Solutions

Back 27

Homogenous mixture of components. Has two parts: solvent (substance present in greatest amount) and solute (substance being dissolved/substance present in smaller amounts).

Front 28

Colloids

Back 28

Heterogeneous mixtures who solutes do not settle out

Front 29

Suspensions

Back 29

Heterogeneous mixtures with visible solutes that tend to settle out

Front 30

Anabolism

Back 30

Synthesis

Front 31

Catabolism

Back 31

Decomposition

Front 32

Carbohydrates

Back 32

AKA sugars. Includes monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Most important is glucose which is the body's readily available source of energy. It is stored as glycogen in the liver and skeletal muscles.

Front 33

Lipids

Back 33

AKA fats. Includes triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids. Lipids are hydrophobic.

Front 34

Amino acids

Back 34

The building blocks of protein

Front 35

Structural levels of protein

Back 35

Primary - amino acid sequence Secondary - alpha helices or beta pleated sheets Tertiary - superimposed folding of secondary structures Quaternary - polypeptide chains linked together in a specific manner

Front 36

Protein denaturation

Back 36

When a protein loses its 3D shape. Reversible denaturation is caused by drops in PH and/or increased temperature. Irreversible denaturation is caused by extreme pH or temperature changes.

Front 37

Enzymes

Back 37

Enzymes help speed up chemical reactions by putting pieces close enough together for a reaction to happen.

Front 38

Phospholipid bilayer

Back 38

Part of the plasma membrane. Includes:

Phosphate heads: polar and hydrophilic

Fatty acid tails: nonpolar and hydrophobic

Front 39

Functions of membrane proteins (6)

Back 39

1. Transport - cells use proteins to bring substances in and for excreting substances from the cell

2. Receptors of signal transduction - these proteins represent the starting point of intracellular messaging

3. Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix - anchoring proteins

4. Enzymatic activity - these proteins increase the rate of chemical reactions

5. Intercellular joining - creation of tissues

6. Cell-to-cell recognition - used by the immune system to recognize foreign pathogens

Front 40

Glycocalyx

Back 40

Sugar layer around cells that tell your immune system that this cell is yours and it should not attack.

Front 41

Microvilli

Back 41

Finger-like projections that serve to increase the surface area of cells.

Front 42

Cilia

Back 42

Hairs on cell surface

Front 43

Flagella

Back 43

Tails of cells

Front 44

5 main cell types in bone

Back 44

1. Osteogenic cells (stem cells)

2. Osteoblasts (bone builders)

3. Osteocytes (embedded in lacunae)

4. Osteoclasts (break down bone)

5. Bone lining cells

Front 45

Ossification (two types)

Back 45

1. Endochondral ossification (begins with hyaline cartilage at the ends of long bones)

2. Intermembranous ossification ( begins with mesenchymal cells, usually forms flat bones)

Front 46

Parts of a long bone (8 parts)

Back 46

1. Diaphysis: shaft

2. Endosteum: inside lining

3. Epiphyseal plate: growth plate

4. Epiphysis: ends of long bones

5. Periosteum: covering

6. Red marrow: blood cell production

7. Yellow marrow: fat

Front 47

Two types of bone growth

Back 47

Interstitial growth: grows and repairs from the inside

Appositional growth: grows and repairs from the outside

Front 48

What is the primary mineral found in bone?

Back 48

Calcium

Front 49

What are three things involved in calcium homeostasis?

Back 49

1. calcitriol (vitamin D)

2. parathyroid hormone (increases calcium in the bloodstream)

3. calcitonin (decreases calcium in the bloodstream)

Front 50

What are the three parts of the axial skeleton?

Back 50

1. Skull

2. vertebral column

3. rib cage

Front 51

What are the four components of the appendicular skeleton?

Back 51

1. Pectoral girdle

2. Upper Limb

3. pelvic girdle

4. lower limb

Front 52

Bone marking: Projections

Back 52

Bone markings that bulge outward from the surface. E.g. heads, trochanter, spines, Etc.

Front 53

Bone markings: Depressions and Openings

Back 53

Fossae, sinuses, foramina and grooves

Front 54

Fontanelles

Back 54

Membranous areas between cranial bones. Include the anterior fontanelle, the posterior fontanelle, the sphenoidal fontanelle, and mastoid fontanel.

Front 55

Intervertebral disc

Back 55

Made of fibrocartilage. Cushionlike pad between the vertebra.

Front 56

Joint classifications by degree of movement: fibrous joints

Back 56

1. Syndesmosis - found at the distal end of the tibia, fibula, ulna, and radius

2. Gomphosis - articulation between the teeth and the jaw

3. Sutures - skull bones

Front 57

Joint classification by degree of movement: cartilaginous joints

Back 57

1. Synchondrosis: ribs, growth plates

2. Symphysis: intervertebral discs fibrocartilage

Front 58

Joint classification by degree of movement

Back 58

1. Synarthrosis- immovable

2. Amphiarthrosis - slightly movable

3. Diarthrosis - freely movable

Front 59

Synovial joint

Back 59

Synovial joints have a fluid-filled joint cavity. E.g. hinge joint (elbow), pivot (head), ball-and-socket (hip or shoulder)

Front 60

Types of lever systems

Back 60

1. First class (e.g. seesaw)

2. Second class (e.g. wheelbarrow)

3. Third class (e.g. tweezers)

Front 61

5 functional characteristics of muscles

Back 61

1. Responsiveness

2. Conductivity

3. Contractility (no other tissue has this)

4. Extensibility

5. Elasticity

Front 62

What are the ends of muscles called?

Back 62

The immovable end is called the origin. The movable end is called the insertion.

Front 63

Sarcomere

Back 63

Structural unit of muscle.

Components:

1. Sarcolemma: muscle cell membrane

2. Sarcoplasmic reticulum: stores calcium

3. Myofibrils: myosin (thick) and actin (thin)

4. T tubules

5. Glycosomes

6. Myoglobin

Front 64

Regulatory proteins

Back 64

1. Tropomyosin (blockade over binding site)

2. Troponin (key to unlock the lock)

Front 65

Power stroke

Back 65

Myosin attaches to actin molecules and muscle moves

Front 66

Three types of muscle attachments

Back 66

1. Direct muscle attachment (e.g. ribs)

2. Indirect muscle attachment (most common, connect with tendons)

3. Aponeurosis (sheet of tendons)

Front 67

Muscle types by fascicular arrangement

Back 67

1. Fusiform

2. Parallel

3. Convergent

4. Pennate - feather like

5. Circular

Front 68

Muscle classification: functional groups

Back 68

1. Prime movers -Agonists: primarily responsible for producing movement

2. Synergists: help

3. Antagonists: oppose

4. Fixators: stabilize

Front 69

What is a tendon?

Back 69

A cord like extension of muscle

Front 70

7 Ways muscles are named

Back 70

1. Muscle location (e.g. temporalis)

2. Muscle shape (e.g. deltoid or trapezius)

3. Muscle size (e.g. gluteus maximus)

4. Directions of muscle fibers (e.g. erectus abdominus or transversus abdominis)

5. Number of Origins (e.g. biceps brachii)

6. Location of the attachments (e.g. sternocleidomastoid)

7. Muscle action (e.g. adductor longus)

Front 71

Nervous system functions

Back 71

1. Sensory input (stimulus receptors for pain, pressure, temperature)

2. Integration

3. Motor output

Front 72

Functional classification of neurons

Back 72

1. Sensory (afferent)

2. Interneurons (association)

3. Motor (efferent)

Front 73

Structural classification of neurons

Back 73

1. Multipolar neurons (99% of all neurons)

2. bipolar neurons (rare, found in special senses)

3. unipolar neurons (sensory neurons)

Front 74

Two types of neuron processes

Back 74

1. Dendrites (incoming)

2. Axons (outgoing)

Front 75

What does a synaptic vesicle do?

Back 75

Holds neurotransmitters

Front 76

Resting membrane potential (polarization)

Back 76

The inside of the cell membrane is more negatively charged than the outside

Front 77

Depolarization

Back 77

A decrease in membrane potential: the inside of the membrane becomes less negative than the resting potential.

Front 78

Hyperpolarization

Back 78

An increase in membrane potential: the inside of the membrane becomes more negative than the resting potential.

Front 79

Myelin sheath

Back 79

Increases the transmission speed of nerve impulses. Formed in the PNS by Schwann cells and in the CNS by oligodendrocytes.

Front 80

Four types of neuroglial cells

Back 80

1. Astrocytes: most numerous make blood-brain barrier

2. oligodendrocytes: make myelin in CNS

3. ependymal cells: line the ventricles

4. microglia: phagocytes

Front 81

What is the absolute refractory period?

Back 81

The period when a neuron cannot respond to another stimulus.

Front 82

Two types of postsynaptic potentials

Back 82

1. Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials (EPSP) - depolarization

2. Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP) - hyperpolarization

Front 83

Where is cerebrospinal fluid formed and reabsorbed?

Back 83

It is formed in the choroid plexus and reabsorbed in the arachnoid Villi

Front 84

Gyri

Back 84

Elevation

Front 85

Sulci

Back 85

Depression

Front 86

Fissure

Back 86

Deep grooves

Front 87

What is the function of the corpus callosum?

Back 87

Connects hemispheres so they can operate as a coordinated whole.

Front 88

Five lobes of the cerebrum and their basic functions

Back 88

1. Temporal: hearing

2. frontal: personality and motor output

3. parietal: sensory input

4. occipital: Vision

5. insula

Front 89

What is the function of the thalamus?

Back 89

It relays incoming sensory information

Front 90

What is the purpose of the hypothalamus?

Back 90

It regulates hunger, temperature, sexual response, thirst, etc.

Front 91

What is the cerebellum involved in?

Back 91

Motor coordination

Front 92

What are the three parts of the midbrain?

Back 92

1. Corpora quadrigemina

2. red nucleus

3. substantia nigra

Front 93

What is the medulla oblongata for?

Back 93

It's the decussation center where incoming afferent pathways cross. It controls heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory rate

Front 94

Name the meninges in order from superficial to Deep

Back 94

Dura mater, epidural space, arachnoid Mater, subarachnoid space, Pia Mater

Front 95

Regions of the spine in order from top to bottom

Back 95

Cervical enlargement, lumbar enlargement, conus medullaris, cauda equina, filum terminale

Front 96

Spinal tracts

Back 96

Ascending (sensory) tracts are three neuron chains going up.

Descending motor tracts are two neuron chains going down.

Front 97

How are gray and white matter arranged in the spinal

Back 97

Gray matter is on the inside and forms horns and the gray commisure.

White matter is on the outside and it forms columns.

Front 98

What is the breakdown of spinal nerves?

Back 98

8 cervical

12 thoracic

5 lumbar

5 sacral

1 coccygeal

Front 99

What are the two roots of spinal nerves and their purpose?

Back 99

Dorsal root: sensory information in

Ventral root: motor output

Front 100

Name the four major nerve plexuses and the primary nerve in each

Back 100

1. Cervical plexus - phrenic nerve

2. brachial plexus - arm

3. Lumbar plexus- femoral

4. sacral plexus - sciatic

Front 101

What is a nocireceptor?

Back 101

Pain receptor

Front 102

What is a chemoreceptor?

Back 102

Detect changes in glucose, oxygen, and hydrogen ion concentration.

Front 103

What do Merkel discs detect?

Back 103

Light touch

Front 104

What do meissner corpuscles detect?

Back 104

Light pressure

Front 105

What do lamellar corpuscles detect?

Back 105

Deep pressure

Front 106

What are the effectors of the autonomic nervous system?

Back 106

It controls the heart, smooth muscles, and glands.

Front 107

What is the sympathetic division known for?

Back 107

Fight or flight

Front 108

What is the parasympathetic division known for?

Back 108

Resting and digesting

Front 109

What are cholinergic fibers?

Back 109

Axon terminals that release acetylcholine.

Front 110

What are adrenergic fibers?

Back 110

Axon terminals that release norepinephrine.

Front 111

What are cholinergic receptors?

Back 111

Acetylcholine binds to them

Front 112

What are adrenergic receptors?

Back 112

Norepinephrine binds to them

Front 113

What are the primary receptors for taste (gustation)?

Back 113

Taste hairs

Front 114

The primary receptors for smell (olfaction)?

Back 114

Olfactory cells which are bipolar neuron receptors

Front 115

Where are the primary receptors for hearing?

Back 115

Cochlea

Front 116

What picks up sensory hearing input?

Back 116

Temporal lobe

Front 117

What is the vestibular apparatus?

Back 117

The collective term for equilibrium receptors.

Front 118

What is the Crista ampullaris?

Back 118

Dynamic equilibrium receptor

Front 119

What is the macula?

Back 119

Static equilibrium receptor

Front 120

What are the three layers of the eye and what is located in each?

Back 120

Fibrous layer: (outer layer) includes sclera and cornea

Vascular layer: this is where the blood supply is. Includes choroid, ciliary body and Iris

Inner layer: retina

Front 121

What is the aqueous humor?

Back 121

The anterior segment of the eye

Front 122

What is the vitreous body or vitreous humor?

Back 122

The posterior segment of the eye

Front 123

What are the two types of photoreceptors and what do they see?

Back 123

Rods: black and white receptors, give vision in dim light

Cones: color receptors, they require lots of light