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30 Cards in this Set
- Front
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Napoleon III
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was now proclaimed Emperor- experienced both success and failure between 1852 and 1870. His greatest success was with the economy, particularly in the 1850s. His government encouraged the new investment banks and massive railroad construction that were at the heart of the industrial revolution on the continent. The government also fostered general economic expansion through an ambitious program of public works, which included rebuilding Paris to improve the urban environment. The profits of business people soared with prosperity, wages of workers more than kept up with inflation, and unemployment declined greatly. Always hoping that economic progress would reduce social and political tensions. His regulation of pawnshops and his support of credit unions and better housing for the working class were evidence of helpful reform and positive concern in the 1850s. He alone chose his ministers, and they had great freedom of action. At the same time restricted but did not abolish the Assembly
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Giuseppe Mazzini
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He preached a centralized democratic republic based on universal male suffrage and the will of the people. His brand of democratic republicanism seemed too quixotic and too radical.
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Pius IX
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The initial cautious support for unification by him, had given way to fear and hostility after he was temporarily driven from Rome during the upheavals of 1848. In 1864 in the Syllabus of Errors, he strongly denounced rationalism, socialism, separation of church and state, and religious liberty, denying that “the Roman pontiff can and ought to reconcile and align himself with progress, liberalism, and modern civilization.”
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Cavour
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the dominant figure in the Sardinian government from 1850 until his death in 1861. he came from a noble family, and he made a substantial fortune in business before entering politics. His national goals were limited and realistic. Until 1859 he sought unity for only the states of Northern and perhaps Central Italy. In a greatly expanded kingdom of Sardinia. In the 1850s, he worked to consolidate Sardinia as a liberal constitutional state capable of leading northern Italy. His program of highways and railroads, of civil liberties and opposition of clerical privilege, increased support for Sardinia throughout Northern Italy. Yet he realized that Sardinia could not drive Austria out of Northern Italy without the help of a powerful ally. Accordingly, he worked for a secret diplomatic alliance with Napoleon III against Austria.
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Garibaldi
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The son of a poor sailor, he personified the romantic, revolutionary nationalism and republicanism of Mazzini and 1848. Leading a corps of volunteers against Austria in 1859, he emerged in 1860 as an independent for in Italian politics. Landing on the shores of Sicily in May 1860, his guerrilla band of a thousand Red Shirts captured the imagination of the Sicilian peasantry, which rose in bloody rebellion against their landlords. Outwitting the twenty- thousand man royal army, the guerilla leader won battles, gained volunteers, and took Palermo. Then him and his men crossed to the mainland, marched triumphantly towards Naples, and prepared to attack Rome and the Pope. But Cavour quickly sent Sardinian force to occupy most of the Papal States and to intercept him. Cavour realized that an attack on Rome would bring about war with France, and he also feared his radicalism and popular appeal. Thus he immediately organized a plebiscite in the conquered territories.
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Victor Emmanuel
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The people of central Italy voted overwhelmingly to join a greatly enlarged kingdom of Sardinia under him. He rode with Garibaldi through Naples to cheering crowds, they symbolically sealed the union of North and South, of monarch and nation-state. The new kingdom of Italy, which expanded to include Venice in 1866 and Rome in 1870, was a parliamentary monarchy under him, neither radical nor democratic. It was politically unified, but only a half million people out of 22 million Italians had the right to vote.
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Red Shirts
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The guerilla army of Giuseppe Garibaldi, who invaded Sicily in 1860 in attempt to liberate it, winning the hearts of the Sicilian peasantry.
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Otto von Bismarck
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he was the head of a new ministry and was to defytthe parliament.he was the most important figure in the German history between Martin Luther and Adolf Hitler and has been the subject of an enormous interest and debate.a great hero to some, a great villian to others, Bismarack was above all a master of politics. Bismarack first honed his political skill as a high-ranking diplomat for the rest of Prussian government.when he took office asst chief minister in 1862, he made a strong but unfavorable impression. "the great questions of the day will not be decided by speeches and resolutions -- that was the blunder of 1848 in 1849-- but by blood and iron."
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Austro-Prussian war of 1866
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it lasted only 7 weeks. You don't like being real roads to mass troops in the new breech loading needle gun to achieve maximum firepower, the reorganized Prussian army proved its metal. it over and northern Germany and defeated at the Battle of Sadowa in Bomhemia. Austria paid no reparations and lost no territory to Prussia, although Venetia was ceded to Italy. The mainly Catholic states of the South remained independent while forming alliances with Prussia. Bismarck's fundamental goal of Prussian expansion had been realized.
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Franco-Prussian war
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it released an enormous surge of patriotic feelings in Germany. The invincible Prussian army, the solidarity of king and people in a unified nation- these and similar themes were trumpeted endlessly during and after the war. Most Germans were enormously proud, blissfully imagining themselves the fittest and best of the European species. Semi- authoritarian nationalism amd a " new conservatism," which was based on an alliance of the propertied classes and sought the active support of the working classes, had triumphed in Germany.
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Great Reforms in Russia
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1. The first and greatest was the freeing of the serfs in 1861.
2.in 1864 the government established a new institution of local government, the zemstvo. |
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Sergei Witte
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the competent Minister of Finance1892 to 11903. He believe that the reality of industrial backwardness was threatening Russia's power and greatness. under his leadership the government built state owned railroads rapidly, doublingthe network to 35 thousand miles by the end of the century. he established high protective tariffs to build Russian industry.
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Bloody Sunday
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A massacre of peaceful protesters at the winter palace in st. Petersburg in 1905 that triggered a revolution that over turned absolutist tsarist rule and made Russia into a conservative constitutional monarchy.
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October Manifesto
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The result of a great general strike in October 1905, it ranted full civil rights and promised a popularly elected Duma (parliament) with real legislative power. It split the opposition. Frightened middle-class leaders helped the government repress the uprising and survive as a constitutional monarchy.
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Duma
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The Russian parliament that opened in 1906, elected indirectly universal male suffrage but controlled after 1907 by the tsar and the conservative classes. On the eve of the opening of the first parliament in May 1906, the government issued the new constitution, the fundamental Laws. The tsar retained great powers. The duma, elected indirectly by universal male suffrage, and a largely appointive upper house could debate and pass laws, but the tsar had an absolute veto. As in Bismarck's Germany, the tsar appointed his ministers who did not need to command majority in the parliament.
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Tanzimat
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A set of refors designed to remake the Ottomaan Epire on a wetern European model. Liberal Ottoman statesmen launched in 1839 an era of radical reform, which lasted with fits and starts untill 1876 and culminated a constitution and a short-lived parliament. The high point of reform came with Sultan Abdul Majid's Imperial Rescript of 1857. Articles in the decree called for equality before the law, a modernized administration and military, and religious freedoms for Muslims Christians, and Jews.
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Muhammad Ali of Egypt
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In 1831, and again in 1839, his French-trained forces occupied the Ottoman provinces of Syria and then Iraq and appeared ready to depose the Ottoman sultan Muhammad II. The sultan survived, but only because the European powers forced Muhammad Ali to withdraw. The European powers, minus France, preferred a weak and dependent Ottoman state to a strong a revitalized Muslim entity under a dynamic leader such as Muhammd Ali.
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Young Turks
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Fervent patriots who seized power in the revolution of 1908 in the Ottoman Empire, forcing the conservative sultan to implement reforms. Although they failed to stop the rising tide of anti- Ottoman nationalism in the Balkans, they helped prepare the way for the birth of modern secular Turkey after the defeat and collapse f the Ottoman Empire in World War I.
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Reichstag
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The popularly elected lower house of government of the new German Empire after 1871. Although Bismarck refused to be bound by parliamentary majority, he tried nonetheless to maintain one. This situation gave the political parties opportunities. Until 1878 Bismarck relied mainly on the National Liberals, who had rallied to him after 1866. They supported legislation useful for further economic and legal unification of the country.
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Kulturkampf
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Bismarck's attack on the Catholic Church within Germany from1870 to 1878, resulting from Pius IX's declaration of papal infallibility. That dogma seemed to ask German Catholics to put loyalty to their newly unified nation Kulturkampf initiative generally aimed to making the Catholic church subject to government control. However, only in protestant Prussia did it have even limited success, because Catholics throughout the county generally voted for the center Party, which blocked passage of national laws hostile to the church.
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Adolphe Thiers
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Led the national assembly. The Assembly ordered the French army into Paris and brutally crushed the Commune. His destruction of the radical Commune and his other firm measures showed the fearful provinces and the middle class that the third Republic might be moderate and socially conservative. France therefore retained the republic, though reluctantly. As he had cautiously said, this was "the government which divides us least."
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Leon Gambetta
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A stabilizing factor was the skill and determination of the moderate republican leaders in the early years. The most famous was the son of an Italian grocer, warm, easygoing, unsuccessful lawyer who had turned professional politician. By 1879 the great majority of both the upper and lower houses of the National Assembly were republicans, and the Third Republic had firm foundations after almost a decade.
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Dreyfus Affair
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A decisive case in which Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish captain in the French army, was falsely accused and convicted of treason. The Catholic Church sided with the anti-Semites against Dreyfus; after Dreyfus was declared innocent, the French government severed all ties between the state and church.
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People's Budget
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A bill proposed after the liberal Party came to power in England in 1906, it was designed to increase spending on social welfare services, but was initially vetoed in the House of Lords. It was designed to increase spending on social welfare services. The Lords finally capitulated, as they had with the Reform Bill of 1832, when the kinds threatened to create enough new peers to pass the bill, and aristocratic conservatism yielded to popular democracy once and for all.
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Benjamin Disraeli
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In 1867 the Second Reform Bill of Benjamin Disraeli and the Conservative Party's traditional base of aristocratic and landed support. After 1867 English political parties and electoral campaigns became more modern, and the "lower orders" appeared to vote as responsibly as their "betters." Hence the Third Reform Bill of 1884 gave the vote to almost every adult male.
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Ulster
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Ireland was composed of two peoples. As much as the Irish Catholic majority in the southern countries wanted he rule, precisely that much the Irish Protestants of the northern counties of Ulster come to oppose it. Motivated by the accumulated fears and hostilities of generations, the protestants of Ulster refused to submerage themselves in a Catholic Ireland, just as Irish Catholics had refused to submit to a Protestant Britain. The Ulsterites vowed to resist home rule in northern Ireland. By December 1913 they had raised one hundred thousand armed volunteers, and they were supported by much of English public opinion. Thus in 1914 the Liberals in the House of lords introduced a compromise home-rule bill that did not apply to the northern countries. This bill, which openly betrayed promises made to the Irish nationalists, was rejected, and in September the original home-rule bill was passed but simultaneously suspended for the duration of the hostilities-- the moment the Irish question had been overtaken by and earth-shattering world war in August 1914.
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Zionism
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A movement toward Jewish political nationhood started by Theodor Herzl. Lueger, the popular mayor of Vienna from 1897 to 18910, combined fierce anti-Semitic rhetoric with municipal ownership of basic services, and he appealed especially to the German-Speaking lower middle class- and an unsuccessful young artist named Adolf Hitler.
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German Social Democratic Party
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By 1912 it had millions of followers- mostly people from the working classes-- and was the largest party in the Reichstag. socialist parties also grew in other countries, though nowhere else with success. In 1883 Russian exiles in Switzerland founded the party, and various socialist parties were unified in 1905 in the French Section of the Workers International. Belgium and Austria-Hungary also had strong socialist parties
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Revisionism
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An effort by moderate socialists to update Marxian doctrines to reflect the realities of the time. The German trade unions and their leaders were in fact, if not in name, thoroughgoing revisionists. That most awful of sins in the eyes of militant Marxists in the twentieth century-- was an effort by various socialists to update Marxian doctrines to reflect the realities of the time.
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Eduard Bernstein
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(1850-1932) Argued in 1899 in his Evolutionary Socialism that many of Marx's predictions had been proven false. Therefore, he argued, socialists should reform their doctrines and tactics. They should combine with other progressive forces to win continued evolutionary gains for workers through legislation, unions, and further economic development. These views were denounced as a heresy by the German Social Democratic Party and later by entire Second International.
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