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74 Cards in this Set
- Front
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ad hominem argument
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From the Latin meaning "to or against the man," this is an argument that appeals to emotion rather than reason, to feeling rather than intellect.
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allegory
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The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.
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alliteration
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The repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in "she sells sea shells"). Although the term is not used in the multiple-choice section, you can look for alliteration in any essay passage. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, and/or supply a musical sound.
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allusion
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A direct or indirect reference to something that is presumably commonly know, such as an event, book myth, place, or work of art. Allusions can be historical (like referring to Hitler), literary (like referring to Kurtz in Heart of Darkness), religious (like referring to Noah and the flood), or mythical (like referring to Atlas). There are, of course, many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion.
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ambiguity
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The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.
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analogy
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A similarity or comparison between them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with, or pointing out its similarity to, something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, and intellectually engaging.
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antecedent
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The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP English Language and Composition Exam occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences.
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antithesis
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A figure of speech involving a seeming contradiction of ideas, words, clauses, or sentences within a balanced grammatical structure. The resulting parallelism serves to emphasize opposition of ideas. The familiar phrase "Man proposes, God disposes" is an example of antithesis, as is John Dryden's description in the Hind and the Panther: "Too black for heaven, and yet too white for hell."
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aphorism
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A terse statement of known authorship that expresses a general truth or moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author's point.
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apostrophe
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A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, "Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: England hath need of thee."
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atmosphere
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The emotional mood created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the author's choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as a description of the weather can contribute to the atmosphere. Frequently, atmosphere foreshadows events. See mood.
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Caricature
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A representation, especially pictorial or literary, in which the subject's distinctive features or peculiarities are deliberately exaggerated to produce a comic or grotesque effect. Sometimes caricature can be so exaggerated that it becomes a grotesque imitation or misrepresentation. Synonymous words include burlesque, parody, travesty, satire, lampoon.
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chiasmus
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A figure of speech based on inverted parallelism. It is a rhetorical figure in which two clauses are related to each another through a reversal of terms. The purpose is usually to make a larger point or to provide balance or order. In classical rhetoric, the paralleel structures did not repeat words, such as found in Alexander Pope's Essay on Man: "His time a moment, and a point his space." However, contemporary standards allow for repeated words; a commonly cited example comes from John F. Kennedy's inaugural address: "... ask not what your country can do for you -- ask what you can do for your country."
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clause
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A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. AN independent, or main, clause expresses a complete thought and can stand along as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate, clause cannot stand along as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause. Examine this sample sentence: "Because I practiced hard, mp AP scores were high," and the dependent clause is "Because I practiced hard."
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colloquialism
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Slang or informality in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms give work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.
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conceit
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A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness due to the unusual comparison being made.
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connotation
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The nonliteral, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. Connotations may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes. See denotation.
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denotation
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The strict, literal ,dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color. See connotation.
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diction
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Related to style, diction refers to the writer's word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. For the AP Language and Composition Exam, you should be able to describe an author's diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author's purpose. Diction, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, and so on, creates an author;s style. Note: This term frequently appears in the essay questions' wording. In your thesis avoid phrases such as, "The author uses diction..." Because diction, by definition, is word choice, this phrase really says, "The authors chooses words to write...", which is an redundant (and silly) as claiming, " A painter uses paints to paint." At least try to put an adjective in front of the word "diction" to help describe it, such as "stark diction" or flowery and soft diction. " See syntax.
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didactic
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From the Greek, "didactic" literally means "instructive." Didactic works have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of morals or ethical principles.
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euphemism
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From the Greek for "good speech," euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for generally unpleasant words or concepts. The euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness, or to add humor or ironic understatement. Saying "earthly remains" rather than "corpse" is an example of euphemism.
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Extended metaphor
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A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work. See metaphor.
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figurative language
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Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid. See figure of speech.
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figure of speech
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A device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar things. Figures of speech include, for example, apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement.
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generic convetions
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This term describes tradition for each genre. These conventions help to define each genre; for example, they differentiate between an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing. On the AP Languange and Composition Exan, try to distinguish the unique features of a writer's work from those dictated by convention.
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genre
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The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, "genre" is a flexible term; within these broad boundaaries exist many subdivisions that are often called genres themselves. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies, autobiographies, and son on). Poetry can be divided into such subcategories as lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, and so on. Drama can be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, and so on. On the Ap language and composition exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the following genres: autobiogrpahy, biography, diaries, critism, and essays, as well as journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing.
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homily
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This term literally means "sermon," but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.
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hyperbole
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A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony at the same time.
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imagery
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The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical level, imagery uses terms related to the five senses; we refer to visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, or olfactory imagery. Ona broader and deeper level, however, ome image can represent more than one thing. For example, a rose may present visual imagery while also representing the color in a woman's cheeks. An author, therefore, may use complex imagery while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In addition, this tern can apply to the total of all the images in a work. On the AP Language and Composition Exam, pay attention to how an author creates imagery and the effect of that imagery.
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inference/infer
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To draw a reasonable conclusion from teh information presented. When a multiple-choice question asks for an inference to be drawn from the passage, the most direct, most reasonable inference is the safest answer choice. If an inference is implausible, it's unlikely to be the correct answer. Not that if the answer choice is direcly stated, it is not iffered and is wrong.
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invective
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An emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong , abusive language.
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irony/ironic
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The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant; the difference between what appears to be and what actually is true. Irony is used for many reasons, but frequently, it's used to create poignancy or humor. In general , three major types of irony are used in language.
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Verbal Irony
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The words litereally state the opposite of the writer's true meaning/
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Situational Irony
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Events turn out the opposite of what was expected. What the chracters and readers think ought to happen does not actually happen.
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Dramatic Irony
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Facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work.
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juxtaposition
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Placing dissimilar items, descriptions, or ideas close together or side by side, especially for comparison or contrast.
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loose sentence
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A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing may loose sentence often seems informal, relaxed, and conversational. See periodic sentence.
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metaphor
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A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity . Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking and meaningful. See simile.
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Metonymy
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A term from the Greek meaning "changed label" or "substitute name," metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. A news release that claims "the White House declared" rather than "the President declared" is using metonymy. This term is unlikely to be used in the multiple-choice section, but you might see examples of metonymy in an essay passage.
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mood
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This term has two distinct technical meanings in English writing. The first meaning is grammatical and deals with verbal units and a speaker's attitude. The indicative mood is used only for factual sentences. For example, "Joe eats too quickly." The subjunctive mood is used for a doubtful or conditional attitude. For example, " If I were you, I'd get another job." The imperative mood is used for commands. For example, "Shut the door!" The second meaning of mood is literary, meaning the prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affects the mood. In this usage, mood is similar to tone and atmosphere.
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narrative
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The telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events.
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onomatopoeia
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A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words. Simple examples include such words as buzz, hiss, hum crack, whinny, and murmur. This term is not used in the multiple-choice section. If you identify examples of onomatopoeia in an essay passage, not the effect.
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oxymoron
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From the Greek for "pointedly foolish," an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include "jumbo shrimp" and "cruel kindness." This term does not appear in the multiple-choice questions, but there is a slight chance you will see it used by an author in an essage passage or find it useful in your own essay writing.
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paradox
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A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense, but upon clsoer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. The first scene of Macbeth, for example, closes witht eh witches' cryptic remark "Fair is foul, and foul is fair..."
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parallelism
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Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning "beside one another." It referes to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentence or paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal phrase. A famous example of parallelism begins Charles Dickens' novel A Tale of Two Cities: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity..." The effects of parallelism are numerous, but, frequently, they act as an organizing force to attract the reader's attention, add emphasis and organization, or simple provide a pleasing, musical rhythm. Other famous examples include Julius Caesar's " I cam, I saw, I conquered," or, as Tennyson's poem "Ulysses" claims, "To strive, to seek, tio find, and not to yield."
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parody
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A work that closely imitates the style or content of another iwth the specific aim of comic effects and/ or ridicule. As comedy, parody distorts or exaggerates distincitve features of the original. As ridicule, it mimics the work b y repeatingand borrowing words, phrases, or chracteristics oin order to illuminate weakness in the original. Well-written parody offers insight into the original, but poorly written parody offers only ineffectual imitation. Usually an audience must grasp literary alusion and understand the work being parodied in order to fully appreciate the nuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, parodies take on a life of their own and odn't require knowledge of the original.
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pedantic
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An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish.
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periodic sentence
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A sentence that presents its central meaing in a main cluase at the end. This independent clause is preceded by a prhase or clause that cannot stand alone. For example, "Ecstatic with my AP scores, I let out a loud shot of joy!" The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis and structural variety. See loose sentence.
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personification
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A figure of speech in which the author presens or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions. Personification is used to make these abstractions, animals, or objects appear more vivid to the reader.
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point of view
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In literature, the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general divisions of point of view and many subdivisions within those.
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First-person narrator
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tells the story with the first-person pronoun, "I," and is a character in the story. This narrator can be the protagonist (tje jerp pr jerpome), a participant (a character in a secondary role), or an obsever (a character who merely watches the action.)
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third-person narrator
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relates the events with the third-person pronoun, "he," "she," and "it." Be aware of two main subdivisions: omniscient and limited omniscient. In the third person omniscient point of view, the narrator, with god like knowledge, presents the thoughts and the actions of any or all characters. This all-knowing narrator can reveal what each character feels and thinks at any given moment. The 3rd person limited-omniscient point of view, as its name implies, presents the feelings and thoughts of only one character, and only the actions of all remaining characters. This definition applies in questions in questions in the multiple-choice section. However, on the essay portion of the exam, the term "point of view" carries a different meaning. When you're asked to analyze an author's point of view, address the author's attitude.
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predicate adjectives
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One type of subject complement-- an adjective, group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking verb. It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies or describes the subject. For example, in the sentence " My boyfriend is tall, dark, and handsome," the group of predicates adjectives ("tall, dark, and handsome") describes boyfriend.
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predicate nominative
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A second type of subject complement-- a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject. It, like the predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence. For example, in the sentence "Abe Lincoln was a man of integrity," the predicate nominative is "man of integrity," as it renames Abe Lincoln. Occasionally, this term or the term "predicate adjective" appears in a multiple-choice question.
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prose
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One of the major divisions of genre, "prose" refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms, because they are written in ordinary language and most closely resemble everyday speech. Technically, anything that isn't poetry or drama is prose. Therefore, all passages in the AP Language and Composition Exam are prose. Of course, prose writers often borrow poetic and dramatic elements.
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repetition
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The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern. When repetition is poorly done, it bores, but when it's well done, it links and emphasizes ideas while allowing the reader the comfort of recognizing something familiar. See parallelism.
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rhetoric
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From the Greek for "orator," this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.
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rhetorical appeal
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The persuasive device by which a writer tries to sway the audience's attention and response to any given work.
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Logos
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Employs logical reasoning combining a clear idea (or multiple ideas) with well-thought-out and appropriate examples and details. These supports are logically presented and rationally reach the writer's conclusion.
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Ethos
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Establishes credibility in the speaker. Since by definition "ethos" means the common attitudes, beliefs, and characteristics of a group or time period, this appeal sets up believability int he writer. He or she is perceived as someone who can be trusted and is concerned with the reader's best interests.
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Pathos
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Plays on the reader's emotions and interests. A sympathetic audience is more likely to accept a writer's assertions, so this appeal draws upon that understanding and uses it to the writer's advantage.
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rhetorical modes
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This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. Sometimes referred to as modes of discourse, the four most common rhetorical modes and their purposes are as follows:
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expository
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the purpose is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. The AP Language and Composition Exam essay questions are frequently set up as expository topics.
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argumentation
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The purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning, thoughtful discussion, and insightful argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having the additional aim of urging some form of action. Many AP Language and Composition Exam essay questions ask you to form an argument.
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narration
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the purpose is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses the tools of descriptive writing.
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rhetorical question
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A question that is asked merely for effect and does not expect a reply. The answer is assumed.
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sarcasm
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From the Greek meaning "to tear flesh," sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a device,but not all ironic statements are sarcastic (that is, intending to ridicule). When well done, sarcasm can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it's simply cruel.
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satire
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A work that targets human vices and follies, or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule. Regardless of whether or not the work aims to reform humans or their society, satire is best seen as a style of writing rather than a purpose for writing. It can be recognized by the many devices used effectively by the satirist, such as irony, wit, parody, caricature, hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm. The effects of satire are varied, depending on the writer's goal, but good satire-- often humorous-- is thought provoking and insightful about the human condition.
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simile
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An explicit comparison, normally using like, as or if. For example remember Robbie Burns's famous lines, "O, my love is like a red, red rose/ That's newly sprung in June. ? O, my love is like a melody, / That's sweetly played in tune. " See metaphor.
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style
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The consideration of style has two purposes:
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style purpose 1.
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An evaluation of the sum in bending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices. Some authors' styles author's style are so idiosyncratic that we can quickly recognize works by the William Falkner to Ernest Hemingway. We can analyze and describe an author's personal style and make judgments on how appropriate it is to the author's purpose. Styles can be called flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic, commonplace, incisive, or laconic, to name only a few examples.
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Style purpose 2
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Classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors. By means of such classification and comparison, on can see how an author's style reflects and helps to define a historical period such as the Renaissance or the Victorian period, or a literary movement, such as the Romantic, Transcendental, or Realist movement.
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Subject Complement
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The word (with any accompanying phrases) or clause that follows a linking verb and complements, or completes, the subject of the sentence by either renaming it or describing it. The former is technically called a predicate nominative, the latter a predicate adjective.MC questions
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subordinate clause
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Like all clauses, this word group contains both a subject and a verb (plus any accompanying phrases or modifiers), but unlike the independent clause, the subordinate clause cannot stand alone; it does not express a complete thought. Also called a dependent clause, the subordinate clause depends on
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