A&p Ch 2 Into To Chemistry

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Chemistry

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the science of the structure and interactions of matter , which is anything that occupies space and has mass.

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Matter


Mass

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Anything that occupies space and has mass

Mass is the amount of matter in any living organism or nonliving thing.

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Chemical elements

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AUnit of matter that cannot be broken apart into a simpler substance by ordinary chemical reactions. Examples include hydrogen (H), carbon (C), and oxygen (O)

At present, scientists recognize 112 different elements

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chemical symbol

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one or two letters of the element's name in English, Latin, or another language

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hydrogen
carbon
oxygen
nitrogen
potassium
sodium
iron
calcium.

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H for hydrogen
C for carbon
O for oxygen
N for nitrogen
K for potassium
Na for sodium
Fe for iron
Ca for calcium.

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major elements

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4 elements, called the major elements, constitute about 96% of the body's mass:

oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen.

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lesser elements

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Eight - lesser elements, contribute 3.8% of the body's mass:

calcium (Ca)
phosphorus (P)
potassium (kalium) (K)
sulfur (S)
sodium (natrium) (Na)
chlorine (Cl)
magnesium (Mg)
iron (ferrium) (Fe)

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trace elements

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14 elements—the trace elements—are present in tiny amounts. Together, they account for the remaining 0.2% of the body's mass.

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MAJOR ELEMENTS 96%

Oxygen (O)
Carbon (C)
Hydrogen (H)
Nitrogen (N)

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Oxygen (O) 65.0
Carbon (C) 18.5
Hydrogen (H) 9.5
Nitrogen (N) 3.2

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Lesser elements 3.85

Calcium (Ca)
Phosphorus (P)
Potassium (K)
Sulfur (S)
Sodium (Na)
Chlorine (Cl)
Magnesium (Mg)
Iron (Fe)

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Calcium (Ca) 1.5
Phosphorus (P) 1.0
Potassium (K) 0.35
Sulfur (S) 0.25
Sodium (Na) 0.2
Chlorine (Cl) 0.2
Magnesium (Mg) 0.1
Iron (Fe) 0.005

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TRACE ELEMENTS

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TRACE ELEMENTS 0.2%

Aluminum (Al)
Boron (B)
Chromium (Cr)
Cobalt (Co)
Copper (Cu)
Fluorine (F)
Iodine (I)
Manganese (Mn)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Selenium (Se)
Silicon (Si)
Tin (Sn)
Vanadium (V)
Zinc (Zn)

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Atom

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An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties and characteristics of its element.

Consists of a nucleus (containing positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons)

Electrons - One or more negatively charged electrons that orbit the nucleus.

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Nucleus (NOO-klē-us)

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The central part of an atom made up of protons and neutrons.

Because each proton has one positive charge, the nucleus is positively charged

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Electrons

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Electrons (e-) are tiny, negatively charged particles that move about in a negatively charged “cloud” that surrounds the nucleus

The number of electrons in an atom equals the number of protons.

each atom is electrically neutral, meaning its total charge is zero.

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Atomic number

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Number of protons in an atom

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mass number

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The total number of protons plus neutrons in an atom is its mass number.

An atom of sodium, 11 protons, 12 neutrons in its nucleus, mass number of 23.

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Electron Shell

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specific groups of electrons are most likely to move about within certain regions called electron shells

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Ion

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An atom that has a positive or negative charge due to unequal numbers of protons and electrons

Any charged particle or group of particles; usually formed when a substance, such as a salt, dissolves and dissociates

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Molecule - def

explanation - 2 types

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two or more atoms share electrons.

A molecule may consist of two or more atoms of the same element

or two or more atoms of different elements

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Compound - def

explanation

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A substance containing atoms of two or more different elements

A substance that can be broken down into two or more other substances by chemical means

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Free radical

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free radical is an ion or molecule that has an unpaired electron in its outermost shell. (Most of an atom's electrons associate in pairs.)

Having an unpaired electron makes a free radical unstable and destructive to nearby molecules.

Free radicals break apart important body molecules by either giving up their unpaired electron to or taking on an electron from another molecule.

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antioxidants

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Substances that inactivate oxygen-derived free radicals

thought to slow the pace of damage caused by free radicals

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Chemical bonds

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Force of attraction in a molecule or compound that holds its atoms together - resisting their separation

Examples include ionic and covalent bonds.

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valence shell

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Outermost shell of the atom

Effects the chance that an atom will form a chemical bond with another atom

an outer shell holding eight electrons is chemically stable

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Types of chemical bonds

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ionic bonds

covalent bonds

hydrogen bonds.

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ionic bond

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The force of attraction between Positively charged ions and negatively charged ions.

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Example of Ion and ionic bond with

Sodium & Chloride

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A sodium atom can attain the stability of eight electrons in its outermost shell by losing its one valence electron; it then becomes a sodium ion, Na+.

A chlorine atom can attain the stability of eight electrons in its outermost shell by accepting one electron; it then becomes a chloride ion, Cl-.

An ionic bond holds Na+ and Cl- together in the ionic compound sodium chloride, NaCl.

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Cation (KAT-&ī-on)

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A positively charged ion.

An example is a sodium ion (Na+)

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Anion (AN-&ī-on)

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A negatively charged ion.

Examples are the chloride ion (Cl–) and bicarbonate ion (HCO3–).

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Electrolyte (ē-LEK-trō-līt)

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Any compound that separates into ions when dissolved in water and that conducts electricity

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Covalent bonds

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atoms form a molecule by sharing one, two, or three pairs of their outer shell electrons.

The greater the number of electron pairs shared between two atoms, the stronger the covalent bond.

Covalent bonds are the most common chemical bonds in the body.

Covalent bonds do not break apart when the molecule is dissolved in water

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Sinlge
Double
Triple Covalent bonds

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Single covalent bond - two atoms share one electron pair.

Double covalent bond two atoms share two pairs of electrons.

Triple covalent bond two atoms share two or three pairs of electrons.

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What is the main difference between an ionic bond and a covalent bond?

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An ionic bond involves the loss and gain of electrons; a covalent bond involves the sharing of pairs of electrons.

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Non polar covalent bond



Polar covalent bond

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nonpolar covalent bond - atoms share the electrons equallyThe bonds between two identical atoms always are nonpolar covalent bonds


polar covalent bond - bond in which electrons between atoms are not shared equally.
This results in a molecule with opposite charges between atoms in a molecule.

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Hydrogen bond

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Very weak bonds that cannot bind atoms into molecules but serve as important links between molecules or within large molecules

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Chemical reaction

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Chemical reaction - the combination or separation of atoms in which chemical bonds are formed or broken and new products with different properties are produced.

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Energy

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has no matter and does not take up space.

Can only be measured by its effects on matter

two main forms of energy are - potential energy and kinetic energy

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Potential energy


Kinetic energy

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potential energy - energy stored by matter due to its position (battery or in a person poised to jump down some steps is potential energy)

kinetic energy - the energy of matter in motion (battery used to run a clock or the person jumps, potential energy is converted into kinetic energy)

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Forms of energy

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Chemical energy - Stored in the bonds of chemical substances. energy is releases when the bonds are broken

Electrical Energy - movement of charged particles

Mechanical - Directly involved n moving matter

Radiant - Energy of electromagnetic spectrum. Light, radio waves, unltraviolet waves, x-rays

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Synthesis Reactions

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-two or more atoms, ions, or molecules combine
(atom A+ atom B --> molecule or compound AB)

-energy is absorbed (stored) for bond formation

The word synthesis means “to put together.”

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Anabolism (a-NAB-o-lizm)

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Synthetic, energy-requiring reactions whereby small molecules are built up into larger ones.

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decomposition reaction

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a molecule is split apart (compound AB --> atom A+ atom B)

kenetic energy is released

The word decompose means to break down into smaller parts.

Large molecules are split into smaller molecules, ions, or atoms.

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Catabolism (ka-TAB-o-lizm)

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Chemical reactions that break down complex organic compounds into simple ones, with the net release of energy.

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Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

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The main energy currency in living cells;

used to transfer the chemical energy needed for metabolic reactions.

ATP consists of the purine base adenine and the five-carbon sugar ribose, three phosphate groups.

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Exchange reactions

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involves of both synthesis and decomposition reactions.

switch is made between molecule parts creating different molecules

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Reversible Reactions

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Reversible reactions can go in either direction under different conditions

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Metabolism

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All the biochemical reactions that occur within an organism

synthetic (anabolic) reactions

decomposition (catabolic) reactions

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Inorganic compound

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Compound that usually lacks carbon, usually is small, and often contains ionic bonds.


water, many acids, bases, salts

Two inorganic compounds that contain carbon are:
1) carbon dioxide
2) bicarbonate ion

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Organic compound

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Compound that always contains carbon in which the atoms are held together by covalent bonds.

carbohydrates
lipids
proteins
nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).

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macromolecules

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Large organic molecules formed by covalent bonding of many identical or similar building-block subunits termed monomers.

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Water

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Water is the most important and most abundant inorganic compound in all living systems

55% to 60% of body mass in lean adults.

With few exceptions, most of the volume of cells and body fluids is water

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water 5 vital

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1. Water is an excellent solvent

2. Water participates in chemical reactions

3. Water absorbs and releases heat very slowly

4. Water requires a large amount of heat to change from a liquid to a gas

5. Water serves as a lubricant

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solution

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A homogeneous molecular or ionic dispersion of one or more substances (solutes) in a dissolving medium (solvent) that is usually liquid.

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hydrophilic


hydrophobic

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Solutes that are charged or contain polar covalent bonds = they dissolve easily in water. (sugar and salt)

Molecules that contain mainly nonpolar covalent bonds, they are not very water soluble.

animal fats and vegetable oils

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hydrolysis

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decomposition reactions break down large nutrient molecules into smaller molecules by the addition of water molecules

Hydrolysis reactions enable dietary nutrients to be absorbed into the body.

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Acid

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a substance that breaks apart or dissociates into one or more hydrogen ions (H+) when it dissolves in water

characterized by an excess of hydrogen ions and a pH less than 7.

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Base

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usually dissociates into one or more hydroxide ions (OH-) when it dissolves in water

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salt

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when dissolved in water, ionizes into cations and anions, neither of which are hydrogen ions (H+) nor hydroxide ions (OH–).

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Ph

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A pH below 7 indicates an acidic solution, or more H+ than OH-.

lower numerical value of the pH = more acidic the solution

A pH above 7 indicates = basic (alkaline) solution; more OH- than H+.

higher the pH, the more basic the solution.

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Ph scale

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A solution's acidity or alkalinity is expressed on the pH scale from 0 to 14

The midpoint of the pH scale is 7, a solution with a pH of 7, such as pure water, is neutral—neither acidic nor alkaline.

more H+ than OH- is acidic and has a pH below 7

more OH- than H+ is basic (alkaline) and has a pH above 7

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Ph magnitude

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A change of one whole number on the pH scale represents a 10-fold change in the number of H+.

At a pH of 6, there are 10 times more H+ than at a pH of 7.

Put another way, a pH of 6 is 10 times more acidic than a pH of 7,

a pH of 9 is 100 times more alkaline than a pH of 7.

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Which pH is more acidic, 6.82 or 6.91?

Which pH is closer to neutral, 8.41 or 5.59?

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A pH of 6.82 is more acidic than a pH of 6.91.

Both pH = 8.41 and pH = 5.59 are 1.41 pH units from neutral (pH = 7).

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Buffer system

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A pair of chemicals—one a weak acid and the other the salt of the weak acid, which functions as a weak base—that resists changes in pH.

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Buffer

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Buffers are chemical compounds that act quickly to temporarily bind H+, removing the highly reactive, excess H+ from solution but not from the body

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Carbohydrates

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Carbohydrates are organic compounds and include sugars, glycogen, starches, and cellulose

The ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen atoms is usually 1:2:1

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three major Carbohydrates groups

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monosaccharides
disaccharides
polysaccharides

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Monosaccharides

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one sugar) are the building blocks of carbohydrates

monosaccharide glucose is to serve as a source of chemical energy for generating the ATP that fuels metabolic reactions

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Disaccharides

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simple sugars that consist of two monosaccharides joined by a covalent bond

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Polysaccharides

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Large, complex carbohydrates that contain tens or hundreds of monosaccharides joined through dehydration synthesis reactions

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Lipids

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contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

most lipids are hydrophobic; they are insoluble in water.

triglycerides (fats and oils)
phospholipids (lipids that contain phosphorus)
steroids
fatty acids
fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, and K).

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Triglyceride

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A lipid formed from one molecule of glycerol and three molecules of fatty acids that may be either solid (fats) or liquid (oils) at room temperature;

the body's most highly concentrated source of chemical potential energy.

Excess dietary carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and oils are deposited in adipose tissue as triglycerides.

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Enzymes

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Enzymes – Functional proteins essential for metabolism.

a) Accelerators in reactions within cells (digestive enzymes - speed up digestion)
(b) Many vitamins/minerals are necessary for the composition of enzymes.
(c) Shape of enzymes are specific to their target sites.
(d) Enzymes can be used over and over
(e) Most enzymes end with the suffix “-ase”

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Nucleic Acids

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Blueprint of Life

DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid

RNA Ribonucleic Acid

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ATP

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The principle energy storing molecule in the body