Ap Bio Chapters 14.1 / 15.1 / 16.1

Front 1

Species

Back 1

-A group of individual organisms whose members have the potential in nature to interbreed and produce fertile offspring

Front 2

Isolating Mechanisms

Back 2

-Prezygotic and Postzygotic
-exist tomaintain reproductive isolation and prevent gene flow (reproductive barriers)
-May appear randomly (genetic drift) or may be the result of natural selection

Front 3

Habitat Isolation

Back 3

-When species do not encounter one another or breed in different habitats
-Prezygotic

Front 4

Prezygotic Isolation Mechanisms

Back 4

-Prevent mating or fertilization
-Before zygote is formed

Front 5

Temporal Isolation

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-When species mate or flower during different seasons or at different times of the days
-Prezygotic

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Behavioral Isolation

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-When a species does not recognize another species as a mating partner (no display of correct mating rituals, signs, little or no sexual attraction between)
-Prezygotic

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Mechanical Isolation

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-When males and females genitalia are structurally incompatible
-Prezygotic

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Gametic Isolation

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-When male gametes do not survive in the environment of the female gamete or the gametes fail to unite
-Prezygotic

Front 9

Postzygotic Isolation Mechanisms

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-Prevent the development of fertile adults

Front 10

Hybrid Inviability

Back 10

-When the zygote fails to develop properly and aborts, or dies before reaching reproductive maturity
-Postzygotic

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Hybrid Sterility

Back 11

-When hybrids become functional adults, but are reproductively sterile
-Eggs or sperm are nonexistent or dysfunctional
-Postzygotic

Front 12

Hybrid Breakdown

Back 12

-When hybrids produce offspring that have reduced viability or fertility
-Postzygotic

Front 13

Speciation

Back 13

-The formation of a new species

Front 14

Allopatric Speciation

Back 14

-Begins when a population is divided by a geographic barrier
-mountain range, river, drought, fire, etc.

Front 15

Sympatric Speciation

Back 15

-Formation of a new species without the presence of a geographic barrier

Front 16

Balanced Polymorphism

Back 16

-Sympatric Speciation
-Variations in morphology can lead to reproductive isolation

Front 17

Polyploidy

Back 17

-Sympatric Speciation
-More than the normal two sets of chromosomes
-Occurs as the result ofno disjunction

Front 18

Hybridization

Back 18

-Sympatric Speciation
-offspring produced by different forms of a species on a geographic boundary which creates a greater genetic variation

Front 19

Adaptive Radiation

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-Sympatic Speciation
-Emergence of numerous species from a common ancestor when introduced to new and diverse environments (ex: Galapagos islands)
-Short time period

Front 20

Patterns of Evolution

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-Divergent Evolution, convergent Evolution, Parallel Evolution, and Coevolution

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Divergent Evolution

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-Two or more species that originate from a common ancestor
-Result of allopatric or sympatric speciation or adaptive radiation
-Go in opposite directions

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Convergent Evolution

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-Two unrelated species that share similar traits
-Both independently adpated to similar ecological conditions (Anaglous traits)

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Parallel Evolution

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-2 Unrelated species or two related linages that have made similar evoluationary changes after their divergence from a common ancestor

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Coevolution

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-Tit for Tat Evolution of one species in response to new adaptations that appear in another species (ex: predator and prey)

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Patterns of Macroevolution

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-Phyletic Gradualism and Punctuated Equilibrium

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Macroevolution

Back 26

-Patterns of evolution for groups of species over extended periods of time

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Phyletic Gradualism

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-Argues that evolution occurs by the gradual accumulation of small changes as populations become adapted to their local environments (fits Darwin's view)

Front 28

Punctuated Equilibrium

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-Argues that evolutionary history consists of geologically long periods of stasis with little or no evolution, interrupted, r "punctuated" by geologically short periods of rapid evolution
-No change, then big change, then back to no change.

Front 29

Early Earth

Back 29

-Origin of Life
-Formation of the first living things
-Hypothesized
-First primitive cell and later developed complex living cells and organisms

Front 30

Formation

Back 30

-Big Bang Theory (10 - 20 Billion Years Ago)
-Earth formed 4.5 billion years ago

Front 31

Early Atmosphere

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-From volcanic eruptions from the interior core
-H2, CO, CO2, N2, H2O, NH3, CH4, S, HCL, HCN, and little/no O2.

Front 32

First Seas

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-Earth cooled, Water condensed, Rain began to form, filling up basins and craters, creating oceans/seas.

Front 33

Complex Molecules

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-Synthesized
-Energy was abundan
-Intense lighting, UV rays, Radioactivity and heat

Front 34

Energy Catalyzed

Back 34

-Formation of organic from inorganic molecules
-Acetic Acid, Formaldehyde, Amino Acids
-Early Molecules would later serve as the building blocks for the synthesis of larger polymers

Front 35

Oparin and Haldane

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-Scientists, theorized that simple molecules were able to form only because oxygen was absent
-O2 so reactive it would interfere with formation of these molecules

Front 36

Stanley Miller and Harold Urey

Back 36

-Test theories that simple molecules by simulating early life conditions
-Added electric spark to simple gases (no O2) and flash of heated water.
-One week later, organic molecules formed, including amino acids

Front 37

Polymers

Back 37

-Self-replicated molecules
-Monomers formed polymers through DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS.

Front 38

Dehydration Synthesis

Back 38

-Monomers to Polymers
-Removal of water

Front 39

Proteinoids

Back 39

-Polypeptides produced without amino acids
-Heat from hot, dry substrates can cause the removal of water allowing the amino acids to bond together

Front 40

RNA

Back 40

-Found short RNA molecules can assembly spontaneously from nucleotide monomers without presence of enzymes

Front 41

RNA Polymers

Back 41

-Formation, simple 'genes', that could assembly a complementary RNA strand first step in replication
-First genes = RNA, not DNA.

Front 42

Taxonomy

Back 42

-The branch of biology concerned with naming and classifying the diverse forms of life

Front 43

Biological Species Concept

Back 43

-Defines a species as a population or group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed and produce fertile offspring.

Front 44

Evolutionary Species Concept

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-Defines a species as a cluster of organisms that represents a genalogy or lineage of descent.

Front 45

Reproductive Barrier

Back 45

-Biological feature of the organisms themselves.
-Precent populations from belonging to closely related species from interbreeding.

Front 46

Habitat Isolation

Back 46

-Two species live in the same general area but not in the same kinds of places.

Front 47

Behavioral Isolation

Back 47

-There is little to no secual attraction between females and males of different species.

Front 48

Mechanical Isolation

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-Occurs when female and male sex organs are not compatible

Front 49

Gametic Isolation

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-Male and female from two different species may copulate, but gametes do not unite to form a zygote.

Front 50

Hybrid Inviability

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-Genesof the two parent species are not compatible

Front 51

Hybrid Sterility

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-Hybrids of two species reach maturity and are vigorous but setile and therefore unable to bring about gene flow

Front 52

Hybrid Breakdown

Back 52

-First generation hybrids are viable and fertile, but when they mate, the offspring are feeble or sterile.

Front 53

Allopatric Speciation

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-Populations seperated by a geological barrier.

Front 54

Adpative Radiation

Back 54

-Emergence of numerous species from a common ancestory introduced to a new and diverse environment.

Front 55

Sympatric Speciation

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-Reproductive isolation develops and new species arise without geographical isolation.

Front 56

Polyploid Cells

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-Each cell has more than two complete sets of chromosomes.

Front 57

Gradualist Model

Back 57

-Populations evole differences gradually as they become adpated to their local environments.

Front 58

Convergent Evolution

Back 58

-Species from different evolutionary brances may come to resemble one another if they live in very similar environments

Front 59

Homologous

Back 59

Same

Front 60

Analogous

Back 60

Different

Front 61

Macroevolution

Back 61

-Main events in the evolutionary history of life on earth.

Front 62

RNA World

Back 62

-Hypothetical period in the evolution of life when RNA served as both rudimentary genes and the sole catalytic molecules.

Front 63

First Cells

Back 63

-Molecular cooperatives enclosed by membranes.
-Polypeptides self assemble into spheres filled with fluid = cell.
-Can carry out chemical reactions

Front 64

Protobionts

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-Precursors of cells (RNA, Fluid, Membrane = Cell Forms)
-First Cells
-Enclosed within a border which materials can be exchanged. UNABLE TO REPRODUCE.

Front 65

Heterotrophic Prokaryotes

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-As early at 3.5 Billion years ago
-After protobionts, able to reproduce.
-Can carry out primitive metabolism.
-Competition for organic molecules
-Natural selection increases once formed.

Front 66

Autotrophic Prokaryote

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-Result from possible mutation. Can produce own food.
-Cell now highly successful.
-Autotrophs used light energy to produce food or energy from inorganic substances through chemosynthesis.

Front 67

O-Zone Layer

Back 67

-Oxygen
-By-product of photosynthesis.
-2.5 billion years ago.
-Interaction between UV Light and Oxygen produced Ozone Layer
-Now most UV is absorbed by OZone. Removes major source of energy.
-Earth became life-friendly environment

Front 68

Eukaryotic Cells Formed

Back 68

-Endosymbiotic Theory

Front 69

Endosymbiotic Theory

Back 69

-Eukaryotic cells originated from a mutually beneficial symbiosis among various kindsof prokaryotes
-Say some prokaryotes eat smaller cells, if indigestable, then would remain.
-Mitochondria, chloroplasts, and other organelles began to reside inside another prokaryote, creating a eukaryote.

Front 70

Mitochondria and Chloroplast

Back 70

-Possess own DNA
-DNA is circular and without proteins, almost like plasmids (bacteria DNA).
-Ribosomes resemble those of basteria and cyanobacteria, respect to size and nucleotide sequence.
-Reproduce independently of their eukaryotic host by a process similar to binary fission.
-Thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts resemble the photosynthetic membranes of cyanobacteria.