Ap Bio Chapters 11.1 / 12.1

Front 1

Mcclintock

Back 1

-The scientist who discovered 'jumping genes' now called transposons.

Front 2

Recombination DNA

Back 2

-This contains DNA sefements or genes from different sources.

Front 3

Shorter

Back 3

-These fragments migrate further through the gel in the method of gel electrophoresis.

Front 4

Transformation

Back 4

-The taking up of DNA from the fluid surrounding a cell.

Front 5

Conjugation

Back 5

-The process of DNA exchange through the union of bacteria cells.

Front 6

DNA Ligase

Back 6

-An enzyme that pastes and stabilizies the two recombinant strands together.

Front 7

Negative

Back 7

-The charge of a DNA molecule due to the phosphate groups.

Front 8

Binary Fission

Back 8

-The process by which a bacteria cell reproduces.

Front 9

RFLP

Back 9

-These fragments produce a unique DNA fingerprint for every individual.

Front 10

F-Factor

Back 10

-This carries the genes for making sex pili and other things needed for conjugation.

Front 11

R-Plasmids

Back 11

-Provice bacteria with resistance against

Front 12

Synthetic Primers

Back 12

-These are used during plymerase chain reaction methods to initate replication at specific nucleotide sequences.

Front 13

Restriction

Back 13

-These enzymes are used during recombinant techology to cut up DNA.

Front 14

Transduction

Back 14

-The transfer of bacterial genes by a virus of phage.

Front 15

Plasmid

Back 15

A small, circular DNA molecule separate from the much larger bacterial chromosome.

Front 16

"ON"

Back 16

-Transcription
-Means that the DNA nucleotide sequence is being transcribed and then translated into a protein
-Only in prokaryotes

Front 17

Gene Expression

Back 17

-The process ofgenetic information going from genes to proteins
-genotype to phenotype
-Only in prokaryotes

Front 18

Operons

Back 18

-Only in prokaryotes
-Cluster of genes with a related function that are turned on or off together

Front 19

lac Operon

Back 19

-Only in Prokaryotes, E. Coli
-Cluster of genes that must be expressed to break down lactose
-Turned on by presence of lactose
-Turned off by a repressor when lactose is not present

Front 20

Promotor

Back 20

-Only in prokaryotes
-Where RNA polymerase attaches and initiates transcription
-Regulatory regions/control sequences

Front 21

Operator

Back 21

-O Region
-Only in prokaryotes
-Where determines whether or not the RNA polymerase can attach to the promoter and start transcription
-Regulatory regions/control sequences

Front 22

Repressor

Back 22

-Only in prokaryotes
-Transcription is turned off when present
-Protein
-Binds to operator and blocks the attached of RNA polymerase to the promotor, no transcription

Front 23

"OFF"

Back 23

-No Transcription

Front 24

trp Operon

Back 24

-Only in prokaryotes, E. Coli
-Produces enzymes that make the amino acid tryptophan
-Regulatory genes produce an inactive repressor that does not bind to the operator
-RNA polymerase transcribes the enzymes and tryptophan is produced
-Transcription is turned off when tryptophan is present
-Tryptophan binds to repressor, making it active and binds to operator to stop transcription

Front 25

Specialization

Back 25

-Prokaryotes differ from Eukaryotes because eukaryotes are specialized.

Front 26

Cellular Differentiation

Back 26

-No operons, Eukaryotic cells
-Specialized Cells
-Gene regulation
-As zygote matures, cells make different proteins by activating different genes
-cells still remain at original 'genetic potential'

Front 27

Mutation

Back 27

-Impairs the ability of a lac operator to bind to repressor

Front 28

Eukaryotic Cells

Back 28

-No operons, genes controlled individually

Front 29

DNA Packaging

Back 29

-Chromosome contains double helix, wound around a cluster of histone proteins, forms a string of beads (nucleosomes), then folds and coils DNA further
-Precents gene expression by precenting RNA polymerase and other transcription proteins from contacting the DNA

Front 30

Histomes

Back 30

-At nucleosome level, they participate int eh short-term switching on and off of genes
-For genes to be transcribed, they must loosen grip on DNA

Front 31

Inactivation

Back 31

-for longterm, cells use higher levels of packing such as highly compacted chromatin found during metaphase

Front 32

X-Chromosome Inactivation

Back 32

-In female mammals, one of the two X Chromosomes in each somatic cell does not uncoil into chromatin.
-Some cells will express one X, the other cells will express the other.
-All cells of the female are not functionally identical.

Front 33

Barr Body

Back 33

-In X-Chromosome Inactiviation, one X chromosome remains coiled as a dark, compact body
-Most of the genes are not expressed nor do they interact with their respect alleles on the X chromosome that is expressed.

Front 34

Regulatory Proteins

Back 34

-Control 'on' or 'off' by binding to DNA and turning transcription

Front 35

Genes

Back 35

-Each has own individual promoter and control sequences

Front 36

Transcription Factors

Back 36

-Turning 'on' a eukaryotic gene involves regulatory proteins in addition to RNA polymerase

Front 37

Enhancers

Back 37

-Activators bind to DNA sequence which is located far from the genes they regulate and function to initiate transcriptionq

Front 38

Silencers

Back 38

-Repressors bind the DNA sequence which function to inhibit the start of transcription

Front 39

RNA Processing

Back 39

-RNA splicing and alternative spicing (introns and exons)

Front 40

Regulation

Back 40

-Packaging, Transcription Factors (Enhancers and Silencers), and RNA Processing (introns and exons)
-The lifetime of an mRNA molecule helps determine how much protein is made, as do protein facotrs involved in translation

Front 41

Homeotic Gene

Back 41

-Blue print for human body
-A master control gene that regulates other genes that actually create the anatomical identity of parts of the body
-cell to cell signaling is key for development

Front 42

Signal-Transduction Pathways

Back 42

-a series of molecular changes that convert a signal/message on a target cell's surface into a specific response inside the cell

Front 43

Growth

Back 43

1. Fertilized Egg
2. Homeotic Gene "master gene"
3. Signal Transduction "communication"
4. Growth

Front 44

Cancer Cells

Back 44

-Divide uncontrollably
-Result from mutations in genes whose proteins products regulate the cell cycle

Front 45

Proto-Oncogene

Back 45

-A normal cell that promotes cell division
-a mutation can change into an oncogene

Front 46

Oncogene

Back 46

-Causes a cell to divide uncontrollably

Front 47

Tumor-Suppressor Genes

Back 47

-Mutations can inactivate which then causes excess cell disvision, creating a tumor

Front 48

Mutations

Back 48

-Proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes both code for proteins actice in signal-transduction pathways regulating cell division
-Mutations of these genes can cause malfunction of the pathway
-Other cancer-causing mutations impair the cell's ability to repair damaged DNA allowing other mutations to accumulate

Front 49

Bacteria

Back 49

-Prokaryotic Cells
-Lack Nucleus, organelles, microtubules, and centrioles
-Single, circular DNA
-Reproduce by Binary Fission

Front 50

Plasmids

Back 50

-Carries genes that are beneficial but not eddential to the bacteria's survival and replicate independently
-Short circular DNA moelcules separate from the larger chromosome

Front 51

F plasmid / F factor

Back 51

-Contains genes that enable a bacterium to produce a pili needed for conjugation, also contains an origin of replication

Front 52

R Plasmids

Back 52

-Provide bacteria with resistance against antibiotics

Front 53

Transformatioin

Back 53

-Bacteria absorb DNA from their surroundings

Front 54

Transduction

Back 54

-New DNA is introduced into the bacteria from a virus/phage (the DNA is from the virus' previous host cell)

Front 55

Conjugation

Back 55

-The process of DNA exchange through the union of bacteria cells, "mating"
-"male" donor cell has sex pili, one attaches to "female"
-Cytoplasm forms a mating bridge, connects the cells
-Chromosomal or plasmid DNA is sent to recipient cell
-When DNA is received, it has the ability to become a donor cell

Front 56

Recombinant DNA

Back 56

-DNA that contains segments/genes from different sources
-Can be formed naturally through transduction, transformation, conjugation or artificially through DNA technology

Front 57

Recombinant DNA Technology

Back 57

-Uses restriction enzymes to cut up DNA at a sequence of nucleotides
-Cut across double-stranded DNA, usually staggered, produces fragments
-Has one that extends beyond complementary, called sticky end.
-Fragments produced insert into a pasmid treated with same restriction enzyme, two sticky ends, base pairing
-DNA ligase will then stabilize

Front 58

DNA Ligase

Back 58

-Stabilizes fragments of recombinant DNA

Front 59

Gel Electrophoresis

Back 59

-Restriction fragments can be separated using a method
-Different length fragments are separated as they diffuse through a gelatinous material under the influence of an electric field
-DNA is negative (due to phosphate group) and moves towards the positive electrode
-Shorter fragments migrate further than longer, heavier ones
-Number of fragments and sizes reflect sequence in DNA

Front 60

Polymorphisms

Back 60

-Fragments differe in length, slight differences in DNA sequences of Gel Electrophoresis

Front 61

RFLPs

Back 61

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms
-Used in applications such as DNA dingerprinting, species anlysis, evolutionary studies, forensics, etc.

Front 62

Complementary DNA

Back 62

-When new, foreign genes are introduced, the introns prevent transcription.
-Obtain mRNA (after RNA Processing) that codes for the desired polypeptide and use reverse transcriptase to make the DNA from mRNA

Front 63

Polymerase Chain Reaction

Back 63

(PCR)
-Method which can clone any DNA segment in a test tube any number of times without using living cells
-Uses DNA polymerase directly and synthetic primers to intiate replication at specific nucleotide sequences