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325 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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carpal
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wrist
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palmer
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palm
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digital
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fingers
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axillary
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arm pit
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brachial
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upper arm
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antecubital
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front side of elbow
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patellar
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knee cap area
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popliteal
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posterior to knee cap area
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tarsal
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ankle
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plantar
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sole of foot
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parietal peritoneum
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lies in the abdominopelvic cavity. The kidneys are located behind this and are said to be in a retroperitoneal location The parietal peritoneum is connected to the visceral peritoneum of many abdomino-pelvic organs by a dbl layered membrance called the mesentery, which provides a pathway for nerves, blood, and lymph vessels to enter and leave the intestines
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peritoneum
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the serous membrane of the abdominopelvic cavity
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visceral peritoneum
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wraps around the organs such as the intestines within the abdominopelvic cavity
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anatomical position
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the anatomical reference point is a standard body position; body is erect with feet slightly apart, palms face forward, thumbs point away from the body
* needed to describe body parts and positions accurately |
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4 quandrants of the abdominopelvic cavity
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- right upper quandrant: gallbladder
- left upper quandrant: spleen - right lower quandrant: appendix left lower quandrant: intestines |
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serosa
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a thin, dbl layered membrane that covers the walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surface of the organs it contains
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parietal serosa
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the part of the membrane lining the cavity walls
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visceral serosa
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the part of the membrane lining the organs in the cavity
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anatomy
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studies the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another
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physiology
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concerns the function of the body; how the body parts work and carry out their life sustaining activities
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Principle of Complementary Structure and Function
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anatomy and physiology are inseparable because function always reflects structure. That is what a structure can do depends on its specific form.
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Ex: bones can support and protect body organs because they contain hard mineral deeposits
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8 Life Processes of Living Organisms
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1) maintaining boundaries: internal environments stay distinct from exterior
2) digestion 3) metabolism: sum total of chemical reactions 4) Movement |
5) Responsiveness
6) Excretion 7) Reproduction 8) Growth/development |
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6 Structural Levels of Organization
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1) chemical level: O, C, N
2) cellular level: unit of life 3) tissue level: groups of similar cells that have a common function |
4) organ level: discrete structure composed of at least 2 tissue types
5) organ level system: organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose 6) organismal level: sum total of all structural levels working to sustain life |
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4 Basic Tissue Types
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Epithelium
Muscle Connective Nervous |
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Integumentary System
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- organ system
- forms the external body covering - protects deeper tissues from injury - synthesizes vitamin D, houses cutaneous receptors, sweat and oil glands |
Ex: hair, skin, nails
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Proximal
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closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
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Ex: the elbow is proximal to the wrist
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Distal
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farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
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Ex: the knee is distal to the thigh
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Superficial
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external; toward or at the body surface
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Deep
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internal; away from the body surface
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medial
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toward/at midline of body; on inner side
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Lateral
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away from the midline; outer side of
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Anterior (ventral)
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toward/front of body in front of
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Posterior (dorsal)
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back of body; behind
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Superior
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toward the head end; upper part
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Inferior
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away from the head end; lower part
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Positive Feedback System
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the result or response enhances the original stimulus so that the response is accelerated
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Ex: enhancement of labor contractions during birth
- blood clotting |
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Negative Feedback System
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brings things BACK TO NORMAL; acts to reduce the change or stimulus; acts to maintain homeostasis
- output shuts off the original effect of the stimulus or reduces its intensity |
Ex: regulation of body temp; control of blood volume by antidiuretic hormone
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3 Components of Homeostasis
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The RECEPTOR senses stimuli and responds by sending info along the afferent pathway to the CONTROL CENTER, which determines the range of a variable and the appropriate response. Info then flows along the efferent pathway to the EFFECTOR, which provides the means for the control center's response to the stimulus.
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Homeostasis
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a dynamic state of equilibrium or balance, in which internal conditions vary but always within relatively narrow limits
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nervous and endocrine systems are the main regulators
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Reproductive System
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- organ system
- overall function is production of offspring |
ex: ovaries, testies, uterus
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Urinary System
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- organ system
- eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body - regulates water, electrolytes, and acid base balance of the blood |
Ex: kidneys, bladder, ureter
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Cardiovascular System
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- organ system
- blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutients, wastes, etc - heart pumps blood |
Ex: heart, blood vessels
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Endocrine System
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- organ system
- glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use by body cells |
Ex: thyroid gland, adrenal gland, pineal gland
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Nervous System
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- organ system
- the fast acting control system of the body, it responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands |
Ex: brain, spinal cord, nerves
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Digestive System
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- organ system
- breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells - indigestible food stuffs are eliminated as feces |
Ex: oral cavity, liver, stomach
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Respiratory System
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- organ system
- keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide - the gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs or the lungs |
Ex: lungs, trachea, nasal cavity
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Lymphatic System (immunity)
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- organ system
- picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood - disposes of debris in the lymphatic system - houses WBC involved in immunity |
Ex: lymph node, thoracic duct
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Muscular System
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- organ system
- allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression - maintain's posture - produces heat |
biceps brachi
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Skeletal System
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- organ system
- protects and supports body organs, and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement - blood cells are formed within bones - bones store minerals |
Ex: bones, joints, femur
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Fontanel
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an unossified space or soft spot lying between the cranial bone of the skull of a fetus
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Sesamoid
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small bone within a tendon
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Sutural bone
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tiny irregularly shaped bone found within a suture
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Costal Cartilage
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cartilage that attaches the ribs to the sternum
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Diaphysis/shaft
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portion of a long bone that is the main part of the bone
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Epiphysis
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refers to the ends of the bone
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Suture
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seam or immoveable joint between the bones of the skull
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trapezius
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back, neck, and inner upper back muscles
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pectoralis major
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muscle over pectoralis
chest |
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deltoid
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shoulder muscle
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sternocleidomastoid
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neck muscle
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tibialis anterior
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muscle over tibia
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rectus abdominis
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stomach muscles
6 pack area |
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humerus
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long bone in arm
upper part of arm fron shoulder to elbow |
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femur
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upper thigh bone from pelvic region to knee
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tibia and fibula
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lower leg, knee to anke; connected at superior and inferior ends; slight separation in the middle
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fibula: outer leg
tibia: inner leg |
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scapula
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shoulder blades
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clavicle
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between shoulder and neck; runs lateral above ribs
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coxal
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hip bone
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radius and ulna
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lower part of arm between elbow to the wrist; connected with slight separation in the center
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ulna: longer and closest to torso
radius: shorter and on outer side; leads to thumb |
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rectus femoris
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muscle over the center of the femur
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poly
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many
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post
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after
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pseudo
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fake
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retro
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behind
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ventro
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front
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hypogastric
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below the stomach
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pericarditis
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inflammation around the heart
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cerebral
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pertaining to the brain or cerebrum
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osteology
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study of bones
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hyperextension
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excessive extension
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isometric
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equal measurement
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chrondrocyte
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cartilage cell
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dorsilateral
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to back and side
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anteriomedial
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to front and middle
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arthritis
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inflammation of a joint
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osteo
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bone
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para
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beside or near
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peri
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around
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- logy
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study of
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myo
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muscle
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neuro
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nerve
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inter
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between
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-itis
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inflammation of
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iso-
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equal or same
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hypo
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below or deficient
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hyper
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above or excess
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intra
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within or inside
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extra-
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outside, beyond
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gastr -
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stomach
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hepat-
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liver
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entero-
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intestine
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endo-
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within, inner
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epi-
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over, above
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crani-
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skull
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cyt-
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cell
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dors-
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the back
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cerebro-
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brain
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chondr-
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cartilage
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contra-
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against
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bi-
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two
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cardi-
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heart
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caud-
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tail
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alb-
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white
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ante-
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preceding, before
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anti-
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opposed to, preventing
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a-
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absence of or lack of
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ab-
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departing from, away from
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ad-
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to or toward
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cranial cavity
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subdivision of dorsal body cavity
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in the skull, encloses spinal cord
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vertebral/spinal cavity
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subdivsion of dorsal body cavity
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runs within the bony vertebral column, encloses spinal cord
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ventral body cavity
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more anterior and larger than dorsal body cavity
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2 subdivisions
-thoracic cavity -abdominal pelvic cavity |
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thoracic cavity
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part of ventral body cavity
surrounded by the ribs and muscles of the chest |
2 subdivisions
-pleural cavities: each envelope a lung - pericardial cavity: encloses the heart |
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abdominopelvic cavity
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part of ventral body cavity; more inferior, by the diaphragm
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2 subdivisions
- abdominal cavity: contains stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and organs -pelvic cavity: lies in the bony pelvis and contains the bladder, rectum, and some reproductive organs |
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diaphragm
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a muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the lower abdominopelvic cavity
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dorsal
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back
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lumbar
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lower back
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gluteal
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buttocks
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inguinal
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anterior side where legs join to trunk
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femoral
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thigh
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crest
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prominant border or ridge
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ex: iliac crest
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process
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any prominent projection of a bone
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xiphoid process
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condyle
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a large convex or concave articular prominence on a bone
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epicondyle
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prominence above a condyle
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facet/articular surface
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a smooth flat surface on a bone
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fossa
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a depression in a bone
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foramen
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a rounded opening in a bone
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meatus
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tubelike passage way in a bone
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head
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rounded articulating projection; usually proximal superior to the neck of the bone
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neck
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constricted region that supports the head of the bone
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tubercle
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small rounded process on a bone
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tuberosity
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large, roughened process on a bone
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trochanter
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a large blunt projection below the neck of the femur
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thoracic
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chest
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deltoid
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shoulder
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mediastinum
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the medial cavity of the thorax containing the heart, vessels, trachea.
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located between the 2 pleural cavities; superior to the abdominal cavity, midline of the body
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cephalic
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head: cranial/facial
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cervical
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neck
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levator
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a muscle that produces an upward movement
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sphincter
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a muscle that decreases the size of an opening and is circular in shape
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tensor
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a muscle that makes a body part more rigid
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abductor
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a muscle that acts to move a bone AWAY from the midline of the body
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adductor
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a muscle that acts to move a bone toward the midline
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ad = admit
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rotator
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muscle that moves a bone around its longitudinal axis
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abdominal
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abdomen
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umbilical
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belly button
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pelvic
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lower body trunk
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longitudinal section
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a cut that is along the axis of a structure
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obligue section
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cuts made diagonally between the horizontal and the vertical planes
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cuts at an angle less than 90 degrees
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horizontal/transverse plane
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runs horizontally from right to left, dividing the body into superior and inferior parts
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also known as a cross section
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frontal plane
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lies vertically, divides the body into anterior and posterior sections
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also called coronal
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intermediate
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between a more medial and a more lateral structure
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the collarbone is intermediate between the breastbone and shoulder
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sagittal plane
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vertical plane that divides the body into right and left planes
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midsagittal plane
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a sagittal plane that lies exactly in the midline
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parasagittal plane
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offset from the midline
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section cuts summarized
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think of cutting through the small intestine
a cross section would cut the intestine perpendicular to its length a longitidunal section would cut the intestine along its length an obligue section would cut the intestine at an angle less than 90 degrees but great than 0 degrees |
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supinator
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a muscle that acts to turn the palm upward or anteriorly
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pronator
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a muscle that acts to turn the palm downward
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dorsiflexion
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the act of lifting the foot so that its superior surface approaches the shin
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dorsal body cavity
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protects the fragile nervous system organs
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2 subdivisions
- cranial cavity: continuous with one another -vertebral/spinal: posterior of body |
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overview of sensory systems
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the ability to sense changes in our environment by means of our sensory systems enables our central nervous system to be aware of and then respond to these changes appropriately
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List Sensory Systems
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classified by body location:
-exteroceptors -interoceptors -proprioceptors |
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overview of sensory systems
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the ability to sense changes in our environment by means of our sensory systems enables our central nervous system to be aware of and then respond to these changes appropriately
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Exteroreceptors
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include skin receptors for temperature, touch, and pressure, and also special senses:
- vision, hearing, equilibrium - chemical senses of taste and smell |
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List Sensory Systems
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classified by body location:
-exteroceptors -interoceptors -proprioceptors |
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proprioceptors
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a class of receptors found in the skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints
monitors movements of the body and stretching of the organs provides us with positional info |
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Exteroreceptors
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include skin receptors for temperature, touch, and pressure, and also special senses:
- vision, hearing, equilibrium - chemical senses of taste and smell |
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VESTIBULE
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enlarged area at the beginning of the ear canal
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proprioceptors
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a class of receptors found in the skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints
monitors movements of the body and stretching of the organs provides us with positional info |
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saccule and utricle
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two sacs in the vestibule that communicate with semicircular ducts
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VESTIBULE
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enlarged area at the beginning of the ear canal
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meissner's and pacinian corpuscles
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dermal receptors which detect pressure
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saccule and utricle
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two sacs in the vestibule that communicate with semicircular ducts
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adaptation
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decrease in receptor sensitivity after prolonged stimulation over time
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meissner's and pacinian corpuscles
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dermal receptors which detect pressure
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thermoreceptors
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receptors which respond to changes in temperature. many are free nerve endings found in the skin
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adaptation
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decrease in receptor sensitivity after prolonged stimulation over time
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receptor
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detects stimulus
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thermoreceptors
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receptors which respond to changes in temperature. many are free nerve endings found in the skin
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receptor
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detects stimulus
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synapse
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the space between the junction or 2 neurons in a neural pathway where the termination or the axon of one neuron comes into close proximity with the cell bodies or dendrites of another
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interneuron
(association neuron) |
a neuron within the CNS that is neither sensory or motor
conveys info over short distances |
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dural sinuses
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filled with venous blood
the surrounding supporting tissue is the 2 layers of dura mater |
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transverse sinus
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perpendicular to superior sagital sinus, over the cerebellum
enclosed by the tentorium cerebelli |
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superior sagittal sinus
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between the right/left cerebral hemispheres enclosed by the falx cerebri
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arachnoid
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middle meninge
a more delicate CT wrapping that DM has numerous collagen fibers that extend deeply into the pia mater |
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subarachnoid space
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the space between the arachnoid and the pia mater
contains CSF where the largest blood vessels supllying the brain are located |
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arachnoid villi
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knoblike projections that project thru the meningeal layer of DM and are especially numerous within the superior sagittal sinus
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this is where CSF is reabsorbed back into the blood; reabsorbed as rapidly as it is produced, which keeps pressure of CSF constant
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ventricles
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a series of interconnected cavities with the brain that are filled with CSF and are lined with ependymal cells
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each ventricle has a choroid plexus that is involved with the production of CSF
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2 lateral ventricles
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one in each cerebral hemisphere; c-shaped cavities; come very close anteriorly and are seperated by a thin membrane called the septum pellucidum
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each lateral ventricle is connected to a slit like 3rd ventricle by a passageway called the interventricular foramen
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3rd ventricle
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the region of the diencephalon and surround the intermediate mass of the thalamus
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connected to the 4th ventricle by the cerebral aqueduct; runs through the midbrain
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4th ventricle
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posterior to the pons and medulla oblongata and anterior to the cerebullum
continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord 3 openings allow the CSF to flow into the subarchnoid space --> 1 median and 2 lateral apertures |
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3 functions of CSF
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1) buoyancy
2) protection 3) maintains the chemical stability around the brain |
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blood brain barrier
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the brain has a very good blood supply but a blood brain barrier exists in most areas that act to protect the brain from changes in chemical composition
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2 areas where the blood brain barrier is absent
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1) 3rd ventrible around the hypothalamus
2) 4th ventricle near vomiting center of the medulla oblongata |
these areas allow the brain to monitor and respond to changes in chemical composition of blood
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The transportationof material to and from the blood and brain is very selective and generally most substances can move in just one direction --->
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1) waste products move out of the brain into the blood capillaries
2) nutrients like glucose and amino acids move from blood to brain either by facilitated diffusion or active transport |
3) lipid soluble substances like oxygen, carbon dioxide, or alcohol can pass through cells by simple diffusion
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cerebrum
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largest area of the brain
outer part called cerebral cortex: -highly folded -greatly increase surface area -consists of gray matter - 6 layers of neurons |
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gyri
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bumps or ridges on the cerebral cortex
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sulci
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slight depression between the gyri on the cerebral cortex
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the cerebrum is divided into...
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right and lieft hemisphere by the longitudinal fissure; or also called the cerebral hemisphere
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3 parts of the diencephalon
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1) epithalamus
2) thalamus 3) hypothalamus |
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epithalamus
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mainly the pineal gland but also consists of the choroid plexus of the 3rd ventricle
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above the thalamus
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pineal gland/melatonin
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pineal gland is an endocrine gland because it secretes the hormone melatonin
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-melanin secretion increases in the dark and decreases during daytime or light
-has been linked to the onset of puberty and menopause b/c it inhibits GnRHH --> women in northern regions tend to start puberty later and start menopause earlier pineal gland works with hypothalamus in setting the body's sleeo wake cycles |
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thalamus
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- makes up about 80% of diencephalon
-shaped like 2 spheres connected by a much smaller sphere - forms the superior lateral walls of the 3rd ventricle -sensory relay station -filters out and edits unnecessary info |
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hypothalamus
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forms inferior lateral walls and floor of the 3rd ventricle
on the inferior side of the brain the hypothalamus extends from the optic chasum to and including the mammillary bodies a small stalk called the infundibulum extends to the pituitary gland |
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lobes of the cerebrum
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1) frontal lobes
2) parietal lobes 3) temporal lobes 4) occipital lobes 5) insula |
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The frontal lobes are separated from the parietal lobes by:
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the central sulcus
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The parietal lobes are separated from the occipital lobes by the...
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parieto-occipital sulcus
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The temporal lobes are separated from the parietal and frontal lobes by....
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the lateral sulcus
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The insula is covered by...
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the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes
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cortex
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outer gray matter of the cerebrum or cerebellum
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gray matter
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consists of nerve cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons
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dural septa
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formed by the meningeal layer and function to anchor the brain in the cranial cavity by forming partitions within the cranial cavity
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falx cerebri
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an extension of the meningeal layer into the longitudinal fissure b/t the right/left cerebral hemispheres and acts to enclose the superior sagittal sinus; attached to crista galli
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white matter
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consists of bundles of myelinated nerve fibers within the CNS
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nerve tracts
- ascending nerve tract - descending nerve tract |
bundles of nerve fibers running together in the CNS
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ascending: carry sensory info
descending: carry motor info |
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ganglion
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a group or cluster of nerve cell bodies in the PNS
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cerebrum
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80% of the brain
- cerebral hemispheres -cerebral cortex --> gray matter -cerebral white matter ---> nerve tracts - basal nuclei --> islands of gray matter at the base |
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diencephalon
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like the stem of a mushroom with the cap = cerebrum
-epithalamus -thalamus -hypothalamus |
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brain stem
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made up of
-midbrain -pons -medulla oblongata |
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cerebellum
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- cerebellar cortex
- arbor vitar- white matter - vermis - cerebellar hemispheres |
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what protects the brain and spinal cord?
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- skin, muscle, fat
- cranial and vertebral bones - meninges --> CT wrappings - cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) |
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meninges
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- CT wrappings around the brain and spinal cord
-protects - encloses venous sinuses - contain cerebrospinal fluid -forms partitions that act to anchor brain in place |
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Name the 3 meninges
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1) dura mater (tough mother)
2) arachnoid 3) pia matter (gentle mother) |
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dura mater
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-outermost, toughest, thickest mater
-cranial DM is 2 layers --> together except at dural sinuses |
1) periosteal layer adheres to the periosteum of the cranial bones except in the DM of spinal cord
2) meningeal layer is continuous with DM of spinal cord, right against periosteal layer except at longitudinal and transverse fissure |
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falx cerebelli
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- continuation of the falx cerebri
- runs down the middle of the cerebellum |
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tentorium cerebelli
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- the extension of the meningeal layer into the transverse fissure
-runs perpendicular to the falx cerebella and cerebri - separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum, encloses the transverse sinus and tents over the cerebellum |
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hypothalamus functions
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- it controls and regulates the ANS by sending impulses to autonomic ctrs in the brain stem and spinal cord
- ctr for emotional responses, limbic system, primitive responses, primitive emotions - controls much of the endocrine system by secreting regulatory hormones |
- regulates food intake
- regulates water intake - regulates body temperature - regulates sleep wake cycles |
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nucleus
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a group or cluster of nerve cell bodies in the CNS
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dermis
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- deep to epidermis
- mainly made of CT - very vascular supplying epidermis with oxygen and nutrients |
2 layers:
papillary region reticular region |
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papillary region
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- 20% of dermis
- areolar CT - dermal papillae are cone shaped and interlace with epidermis -containing capillary loop; meissner's corpuscles (light touch receptors), and free nerve endings |
palms and soles arranged in dermal ridges which cause epidermal ridges; ie finger prints
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reticular region
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- dense irregular CT
- tough protective layer - 80% of dermis contains cleavage lines, flexure lines, pacinian corpuscles |
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cleavage lines
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areas where collagen bundles are less dense and tend to run parallel to each other
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flexure lines
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folds in the dermis where collagen bundles attach the skin to bone and these occur at various joints
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pacinian corpuscles
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sensory receptors for pressure
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color of skin
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3 pigments
melanin - yellow, black, brown, auburn hemoglobin - red: dilated blood vessels give skin a red or pink color |
carotene - orange: precursor to vit A and is stored in the strateum corneum and adipose tissue
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sebaceous glands
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- exocrine gland
- simple branched alveolar - secretion: sebum - oil with antimicrobial agents |
- function - protection from microorganisms prevents hair and skin from drying out
- location: everywhere except palms of hands and soles of feet - sex hormones, especially androgens stimulate secretion of sebum; may lead to increase in acne |
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sweat glands
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1) eccrine glands: simple coiled tubular
a) secretion is mainly water b) function: cool body by sweat evaporating c) location: everywhere, except external genitalia; abundant in palms, soles, forehead |
apocrine glands: do not regulate temp and are located in the axillary and genital regions; function under influence of androgens
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integumentary system
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consists of skin and its accessories
hair, nails, various glands, muscles, and nerves |
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skin
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the cutaneous membrane covering the external surface of the body and is the largest organ in the body; only 2mm thickness
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functions of integumentary system
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1) protection from dehydration, damage from UV light, invasion of microorganisms, chemicals, abrasions
2) formation of the precursor to Vitamin D 3) Temperature regulation 4) Serves as a resevoir for blood 5) Sensory receptors; sense of touch, temp, pain, pressure 6) excretion |
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stucture of integument
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two major layers:
epidermis dermis |
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hypodermis
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- not part of the integumentary system
- within muscular system - however several structures (hair follicles, glands) may extend into this layer |
the major tissue types here are areolar CT and adipose tissue
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epidermis cells
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- 90% of cells are keratinocytes
-melanocytes - Langerhans - Merkel |
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keratinocytes
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- connected by desmosomes
- form layers of strata in the epidermis |
keratinization: cells migrate superficially and start making a precursor to keratin; then die and become filled with keratin
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melanocytes
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- produce the pigment melanin and located close to the basement membrane
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keratinocytes pick up melanin and use it as a shield over the nucleus; thereby shielding the genetic material from UV light
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Langerhans Cell
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- type of fixed macrophage
- phagocytosis of foreign substances and microorganisms -located in stratum spinosum |
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Merkel Cell
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- least abundant
- combine with a sensory nerve ending to form a merkel disk which is a sensory receptor for light touch; located next to basement membrane |
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Layers of Epidermis
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stratum basale (deep)
statum spinosum stratum granulosum stratum lucidum stratum corneum (superficial) |
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stratum basale
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single layer of low columnar or cuboidal cells (mostly keratinocytes) attached to basement membrane.
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- receives most nourishment
- cells constantly dividing - nourished from diffusion of nutrients from areolar tissue below |
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stratum spinosum
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- 8 to 10 layers of of cells with desmosomes linking
- langerhans cells located here - cells closest to the basale stratum maintain ability to divide |
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stratum granulosum
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- 3-5 layers of keratinocytes that are in the process of degenerating
- the cells contain a precursor to keratin and have thickened plasma membranes that are coated with a glycolipid |
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stratum lucidum
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only present in the palms of hands and soles of feet --> thick skin
THESE CELLS ARE DEAD |
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stratum corneum
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thickest layer
- 20 - 30 layers of dead cells that are filled with keratin and coated with glycolipid |
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4 principle tissue types
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a) epithelium - covers, lines, and forms glands
b) connective tissue - connects, protects, supports, transports c) muscle tissue - contracts for movements d) nerve tissue - conducts nerve impulses |
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characteristics of epithelial tissue
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a) cellular - consists primarily of cells
b) apical surface c) specializing of the plasma membrane are common d) avascular e) cell division occurs throughout life |
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classification of epithelial tissue
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based on shape of cells at the free or apical surface; and the number of cells
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- simple squamous
- simple cuboidal - simple columnar - stratified epithelium * the shape of the cells on the free surface is use for classification |
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simple squamous epithelium
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function: filtration, diffusion, reduction of friction
location: lining blood vessels (endothelium), lining serous membranes; (mesothelium), lining alveoli of lungs |
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simple cuboidal epithelium
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function: absorption and secretion
location: lining kidney tubules and follicles of thyroid gland |
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simple columnar epithelium
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- one layer of tall column shaped cells attached to a basement membrane
- different modifications result in different function |
a) cells with cilia function to move material
b) cells with microvilli function to absorb materials c) cells with goblet cells secrete mucus d) those cells without these modifications function to secrete substances; mostly located in glands and the digestive tract |
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pseudostratified epithelium
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all cells are attached to the basement membrane but not all cells reach free surface
most have cells with cilia function: move substances along the surface many times goblet cells are also present location: trachea |
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2 types of stratified squamous epithelium
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1) keratinized: stratified squamous epithelium - dry surface; skin; top layer of cells are dead and filled with water resistant keratin
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2) nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium: wet surface; lining of mouth, lining of vagina; top layer of cells are alive and do not contain keratin
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transitional epithelium
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- special type of stratified epithelium
1) location: lining of urinary bladder 2) function: ability to expand and adapt to changes in volume 3) structure: several layers of cells that can slide over one another thereby reducing the # of layers - in empty bladder 6-7 layers - can go down to 2 layers in full bladder |
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stratified squamous epithelium
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- many layers of cells over the basement membrane; the top layer of cells are flat
1) function: protection from wear and tear 2) location: areas of body subjected to wear and tear --> skin, lining of mouth, anus, lining of vagina 3) structure: cells in layer further from the basement membrane get less nutrients therefore less viable; little cell division cells closest to basement undergo cell division |
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epithelial tissue glands
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- endocrine glands are called ductless b/c they secrete directly into the blood secretion = hormones
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- exocrine glands have ducts and secrete substances out of the ducts onto the surface of a body structure
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exocrine gland cells
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secreting cells - secreting unit; produce secretion
duct cells- line the duct, but do not make the secretion |
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structural classifications of multicellular exocrine glands
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simple glands
simple tubular simple alveolar simple branched tubular/alveolar |
compound glands
compound tubular gland compound alveolar gland compound tubuloalveolar |
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connective tissue
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- all derived from the embryonic tissue called the mesenchyme
-cells are widely separated -located beneath epithelium -does not cover or line body parts - different degrees of vascularity |
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matrix of connective tissue
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- material between cells of CT
- consists of ground substance and protein fibers |
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ground substance
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- refers to the nonfibrous background material in which the cells and the protein fibers set
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- consists of interstitial fluid, cell adhesion proteins, proteoglycans
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protein fibers
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collagen fibers--> white
elastic fibers --> yellow reticular fibers - fine lacey fibers made of collagen wrapped with polysaccharide; thinner than collagen fibers and more branched |
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Types of CT
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1) CT proper
a) loose CT: areolar, adipose, reticular b) dense CT: dense regular, dense irregular, elastic tissue |
2) cartilage
a) hyaline caritlage b) fibrocartilage c) elastic cartilage 3) bone 4) blood |
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ground substance
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- refers to the nonfibrous background material in which the cells and the protein fibers set
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- consists of interstitial fluid, cell adhesion proteins, proteoglycans
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areolar tissue
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- type of CT proper- loose
- abundant spaces b/t protein fibers and cells - cell types: fibrocyte, mast cells, histocytes, plasma cells - all 3 protein fibers - very vascular, serves as a way for nutrients to diffuse through to epithelial - deep to epithelial tissue |
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protein fibers
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collagen fibers--> white
elastic fibers --> yellow reticular fibers - fine lacey fibers made of collagen wrapped with polysaccharide; thinner than collagen fibers and more branched |
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adipose tissue
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- type of loose CT proper
- fat tissue - cell types- adipocyte - matrix - just reticular fibers holding adipocytes together functions: energy storage, insulation, cushioning locations: subcutaneous region around organs |
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Types of CT
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1) CT proper
a) loose CT: areolar, adipose, reticular b) dense CT: dense regular, dense irregular, elastic tissue |
2) cartilage
a) hyaline caritlage b) fibrocartilage c) elastic cartilage 3) bone 4) blood |
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reticular tissue
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-loose CT proper
- cell type: reticulocyte -matrix: composed of mainly reticular fibers -function: forms internal framework of certain organs - location stroma of the lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow |
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dense regular CT
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- characterized by abundant protein fibers with little ground substance
cell type: fibroblast matrix: parallel bundles of collagen fibers function: forms 3 strong attachments locations: makes up the majority of tendons and ligaments |
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areolar tissue
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- type of CT proper- loose
- abundant spaces b/t protein fibers and cells - cell types: fibrocyte, mast cells, histocytes, plasma cells - all 3 protein fibers - very vascular, serves as a way for nutrients to diffuse through to epithelial - deep to epithelial tissue |
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dense irregular CT
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characterized by abundant protein fibers with little ground substance
cell type: fibroblast matrix: interwoven collagen fibers and some elastic fibers function: protection location: most of the dermis of the skin; makes up capsules that surround kidneys, spleen, liver, testis |
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adipose tissue
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- type of loose CT proper
- fat tissue - cell types- adipocyte - matrix - just reticular fibers holding adipocytes together functions: energy storage, insulation, cushioning locations: subcutaneous region around organs |
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elastic tissue
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- dense CT proper
- yellowish in color and can stretch and then recoil back to its initial length - cell type: fibroblast -matrix: wavy bundles of elastic fibers with collagen fiber interspersed -function: ability to stretch and recoil; creates sounds when vibrated -location: vocal cords, walls of arteries, vertebral column |
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reticular tissue
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-loose CT proper
- cell type: reticulocyte -matrix: composed of mainly reticular fibers -function: forms internal framework of certain organs - location stroma of the lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow |
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cartilage
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- CT
- structurally and functionally b/t dense CT and bone - cell type: chondrocyte - matrix: ground substance contains proteoglycans and intercellular fluid; collagen fibers are the predominate protein fiber except in elastic cartilage -avascular and lack nerves |
3 types
hyaline fibrocartilage elastic cartilage |
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dense regular CT
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- characterized by abundant protein fibers with little ground substance
cell type: fibroblast matrix: parallel bundles of collagen fibers function: forms 3 strong attachments locations: makes up the majority of tendons and ligaments |
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dense irregular CT
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characterized by abundant protein fibers with little ground substance
cell type: fibroblast matrix: interwoven collagen fibers and some elastic fibers function: protection location: most of the dermis of the skin; makes up capsules that surround kidneys, spleen, liver, testis |
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elastic tissue
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- dense CT proper
- yellowish in color and can stretch and then recoil back to its initial length - cell type: fibroblast -matrix: wavy bundles of elastic fibers with collagen fiber interspersed -function: ability to stretch and recoil; creates sounds when vibrated -location: vocal cords, walls of arteries, vertebral column |
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cartilage
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- CT
- structurally and functionally b/t dense CT and bone - cell type: chondrocyte - matrix: ground substance contains proteoglycans and intercellular fluid; collagen fibers are the predominate protein fiber except in elastic cartilage -avascular and lack nerves |
3 types
hyaline fibrocartilage elastic cartilage |
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hyaline cartilage
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-most abundance type and is what most of the embryonic skeleton is made of
- structure: equal mix of ground substance and collagen fibers for matrix; chondroblasts set in a fluid filled space called a lacuna -ffunctions: shock absorption, reduction of friction, support locations: ends of long bones, nose, most of embryonic skeleton |
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elastic cartilage
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- not as abundant as hyaline; more specialized
-structure: similar to hyaline but more elastic fibers than collagen fibers -functions: support and flexibility -locations: external ears, auditory tubes |
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fibrocartilage
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- collagen fibers occur in thick bundles that run parallel to each other; chrondroblast set within lacuna but are lined up in rows b/t the c. bundles
- more compressible, but the strongest and toughest type of cartilage -functions: shock absorption, resist tearing, tensile -locations: intervertebral disks, articular cartilage of knee = menisci |
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bone
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connective tissue
2 types: compact & spongy the unit of structure of compact bone is an osteon. The unit of structure of a spongy bone is a trabeculae. |
structure of bone
cell type = osteoblast/osteocyte matrix = mineralized ground substance and collagen fibers |
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blood
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the cell types of blood are red blood cells = erythrocytes
white blood cells = leukocytes platelets the matrix of blood is plasma which is primarily water. the ground substance then of blood is mainly water and the protein fibers do not appear unless the blood clots. |
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epitherlial membranes
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- combination of epitherlium and CT
3 types - cutaneous (skin) - mucous - opening to exterior - serous membranes: line ventral body cavities; no opening to exterior |
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mucous membranes
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line: respiratory tract, digestive tract, urinary tract, reproductive tract
structure: epithelium in regions closest to the exterior |
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serous membranes
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- line ventral body cavities
- consists of simple squamous epithelium called mesothelium and areolar CT - helps reduce friction |
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muscle tissue
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- irritable; can contract and stretch within limits
- major function: contract = movement |
3 types
skeletal cardiac smooth |
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skeletal muscle
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- largest cells
- myofibers: long, cylinder cells - have many peripheral nuclei - muscle fibers are striated and under voluntary control |
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cardiac muscle
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- makes up the majority of the heart
- cells are smaller, more squared, branch - one or 2 centrally located nuclei - striated and have intercalated disks that are located at the junction of adjacent cardiac myofibers -involuntary control |
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smooth muscle
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- smallest type
- one centrally located nucleu - spindle shaped - no striations - located in the walls of hollow organs - involuntary control |
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nerve tissue
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- irritable; can creat action potential
- responds to stimuli and can transmit electrochemical currents called nerve impulses |
neuron: conducts and transmitsnerve impulses
neuroglial cells: supporting cells; support and aid neurons |
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hypochondriac
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below cartilage
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epigastric
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above stomach
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lumbar
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b/t thorax and the pelvis
ie lower back |
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umbilical
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belly button
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inguinal
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pertaining to the groin region; anterior side where legs join to trunk
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abdominopelvic cavity regions
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R hypochondriac region --> epigastric --> left hypochondriac region
r lumbar region --> umbilical region --> left lumbar region r iliac (inguinal) --> hypogastric (pubic) --> left iliac (inguinal) |
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abduction of shoulder
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moving away from midline
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extension of elbow
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increasing the angle of a joint
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adduction of shoulder
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moving bone toward midline
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flexion of neck
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moving chin down towards chest
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extension of knee
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straightening leg
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flexion of elbow
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decreasing the angle of a joint
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abduction of hip
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moving leg away from midline
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circumductionof hip
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moving in a circular motion
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