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113 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is Anthropology? |
Anthropology is the study of human variation over space and time
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About what time did anthropology become a discipline?
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1900's |
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Who started the first anthropology department?
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Franz Boas
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What are the four fields of anthropology?
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1. Biological
2. Archaeology 3. Anthropological Linguistics 4. Cultural |
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What are some common characteristics of the fields?
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○ All fields tend to be comparative and compare/contrast human societies across time and space |
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What is racial evolutionary theory?
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• Early cultural evolution through race could be measured using characteristics such as skin color, head size, moral and mental capacities |
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Does race exist?
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• No uniforms set of measurements can distinguish groups of people systematically |
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What is culture?
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• Culture is a system of symbols, behaviors, and beliefs humans acquire as members of society
• Unlike most other organisms, humans use culture to adapt to change • Culture is considered something unique in human societies |
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Paleoanthropology
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seeks to understand our biological evolution through the fossil record
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Human biology
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seeks to understand contemporary variability by looking at nutrition, disease , etc.
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Primatology
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seeks to understand human biological and social evolution by looking at primates |
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Prehistoric archaeology
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seeks to understand human variation through the material record |
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historic archaeology
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seeks to understand human variation through material and written record
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cultural anthropology
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Seeks to understand human variation using contemporary peoples
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Linguistic Anthropology
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Linguistics seeks to understand human variation through language |
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Thinkers - Evolutionary Theory
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Lamarck and Darwin
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Thinker - Early genetics
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Mendel
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Uniformitarianism
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Sir Charles Lyell
• Countered Cuvier's theory of Catastrophism • Proposed instead that gradual processes that occur today acted in a similar way in the past • Such change is always gradual and non-directional |
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inheritance of acquired characteristics
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• Observed that animals and plants are uniquely adapted to their environments
• This relationship is dynamic - living things biologically adapt to their changing environment • "Subtle fluids" within the body stimulate the development and growth of special organs that are passed on to offspring • "Inheritance of acquired characteristics" based on need, use, or disuse • Generally discarded because no evidence for traits acquired by an individual during their lifetimes are passed on t their offspring - Lamarck |
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Who was the first person to develop a theory for organic evolution?
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Lamarck
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Finches study
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- Darwin
• Sailed around the world for 5 years documenting species of plants and animals • Galapagos islands - saw basic similarities and subtle differences between plants and animals on the island and those on the mainland • The beaks of finches revealed how different types of the same bird had adapted to local environments over generations ○ All finches evolved from a common mainland species ○ Over time and space, finch populations evolved different characteristics suited to their environment |
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Evolutionary theory - Darwin
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Natural selection, survival of the fittest
-• Thus, those individuals who survive must be better fitted to their environment than those who do not • Any variation that allowed these survivors to produce fertile offspring would likely be preserved and passed on to future generations • Variation that did not would be eliminated • “ Individuals best adapted to the environment contribute more offspring to succeeding generations than others do. As more of such individuals’ characteristics are incorporated into the gene pool, the characteristics of the population evolve” (Campbell and Loy 2000:15). |
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Blending Inheritance
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• Part of folk wisdom that parental traits combined
• This ultimately leads to a loss of variation within a population • The opposite occurs in sexually reproducing populations, variation is maintained and actually increases |
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Gregor Mendel
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• Augustinian monk in the Czech Republic
• Contemporary of Darwin |
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Mendel's Studies
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• Experimented with hybrids of the common garden pea
○ Crossed specific traits" color, pod flowers, etc § Focused on round and wrinkle peas □ Crosses wrinkled-pea and round-pea plants biological evolution (look at notes for generations) |
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Dominant trait
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the trait that is expressed in the phenotype even when the organism is carrying only one copy of the underlying gene responsible
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Genotype
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the hereditary unit that codes for a particular trait. Underlying gene responsible.
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Phenotype
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the observable hereditary characteristics
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Recessive trait
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the trait expressed only when the organism carries two copies of the underlying gene responsible
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Modern Synthetic theory of evolution
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• MST (neodarwinism)
○ Random mutations produce genes that may be adaptive, as these genes increase the fitness of a population, they become more prevalent and lead to a population evolving |
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postulates of MST
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○ As a result of mutation creating new alleles and segregation and independent assortment shuffling alleles into new combinations, individuals within a population are variable for nearly all traits
○ Individuals pass their genes on to their offspring intact and independently of other genes ○ In most generations, more offspring are produced than can survive ○ The individuals that survive and go onto reproduce or who reproduce the most, are those with the alleles and allelic combinations that best adapt them to their environment |
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Population thinking
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• Evolution works by altering the frequencies of certain genes within a population over time as a result of changes in the environment
• Population - a local group of interbreeding individuals in which any two individuals can potentially mate |
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Genes
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hereditary material that codes for phenotypic traits
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Gene pool
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the sum of all genes of a population at a given point in time
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Genotype + environment =
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phenotype
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DNA
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the building blocks of life which carry the genetic code
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Chromosomes
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coiled threadlike structures of DNA
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Gene flow
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the movement of genes among groups due to a sudden expansion or migration
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Genetic drift
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random changes in gene frequencies from one generation to the next through isolation or sudden reduction in size
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With mutation, variation in populations _______ and variation between populations __________
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increases, increases
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With Gene flow, variation in populations _______ and variation between populations __________
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increases, decreases
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With Genetic drift, in populations _______ and variation between populations __________
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decreases, increases
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With Natural selection, variation in populations _______ and variation between populations __________
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increases or decreases, increases or decreases
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Macroevolution
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uniform process, eventual outcome of microevolution given enough time
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anagenesis
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the gradual transformation of one species into another species
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in terms of taxonomy humans are...
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primates
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primate characteristics - Morphology
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• Five digits
• Clavicle (collar bone) that allows for the flexibility in the shoulder • Opposable thumbs and great toes for grasping • Nails rather than claws • Pads at the tips of digits with a plethora of nerve endings Dermal ridges (friction skin) on digits, soles, palms, and tails |
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Primate characteristics - biological
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• Increased period of infant dependence
• Increased dependence on learned behavior • Increased dependence on sight - stereoscopic vision |
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Clade
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A group of organisms possessing a set of shared and derived traits that constitutes a natural group.
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Cladistics
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Taxonomic system based on evolutionary relatedness alone.
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Anthropoids include....
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new world monkeys, old world monkeys, apes and humans
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What are the infraorders of anthropoids?
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platyrrhini and catarrhini
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Cladistic classification
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based on evolutionary branching and all traits are treated equally
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Genetic Classification
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• Classifying species based on shared genes and evolution
○ Common ancestor ○ We are most closely related to chimpanzees • We descend from African apes |
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Species name: Humans
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• Genus is Homo
• Species is sapiens Homo sapien |
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how similar are chimpanzees to us in DNA?
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98.4% of human chimpanzee base sequences are identical
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when were the earliest anthropoidea fossils found?
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Earliest fossils 45 to 50 mya
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what are the hominoids?
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apes, superfamily of primates, includes humans
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What distinguishes hominoids apes from Cercopithecoides old world monkeys?
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hominoids do not have tails
teeth differences |
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Hominids are distinguished from other primates by...
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bipedal locomotion
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Hominids appear in the fossil record around...
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3-7 mya
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what is likely the last common ancestor of all subsequent hominids?
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Australopithecus afarensis
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Australopithecines persisted for nearly...
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3 million years
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Homo appeared about ___ and was contemporaneous with several species of _____________
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2.4 mya, Australopithecus
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Homosapiens appeared only ________ years ago
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195,000
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A. afarensis ranged from ________ mya
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3.0-3.9
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What is Lucy?
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Lucy belongs to A. afarensis and is the most complete skeleton found 40% of the skeleton
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Foramen magnum
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the hole through which the spinal cord passes
○ Apes, back of the skull ○ A. afarensis is beneath it, indicating upright locomotion |
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What is some of the other evidence of bipedalism in A. afarensis?
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○ Knock kneed legs
○ Basin saped pelvis ○ Footprints dated back to same time - Laetoli footprints |
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Why did we evolve bipedal locomotion?
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○ Arboreal areas turned into grasslands
○ Can carry things ○ We were the hunted - look beyond the grass |
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Gracile
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(small and lightly built faces) such as A. Africanus
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Robust
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(rugged Jaws, flat faces) such as A. Boisei and A. Robustus
Robust australopithecines appear to have controlled fire and cooked mean in southern Africa |
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What did A. afarensis evolve into?
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Gracile and robust australopithecines
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What's so special about Homo habilis?
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the "handy man" with first evidence of tool making
○ Tools represent the "oldowan tradition" |
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Homo erectus
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revolutionary
○ H. erectus showed extensive tool-making, possibly hunting ○ First hominid to migrate out of Africa and into Asia, Southeast Asia and Europe ○ Large brain - 1250 cm3 |
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With what species is the oldowan tradition identified with?
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Associated with first known tools of Homo - H. habilis
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Oldowan tools date to ____ mya and found in _________
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2.5-2, southern and eastern africa
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Oldowan tradition (general description)
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○ Consist of mostly cores or cobbles with some flakes removes - crude
○ Used to cut meat off of bones § Probably not used to kill animals □ Scavenging off of other carnivores |
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how do oldowan tools differ from chimp's tools?
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made with more intention and to make other tools
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Homo erectus
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(1.8-.3 mya)
• Large brain and large body • Migrated out of africa into europe and adia • Evidence of hunting behavior |
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did homo erectus control fire?
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yes, evidence in the form of hearths
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Turkana Boy
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Oldest known Homo erectus fossil is "Turkana boy" (1.7 mya)
○ Nearly complete skeleton found in 1984 ○ Would have been about 6' tall |
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did Homo erectus involve into Homo sapiens?
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No! They became extinct
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Acheulean Tradition
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• Acheulean tools are "biface" or hand axes
• Typically associated with H. erectus but possibly used by later species of homo as well. H. erectus could have used Oldowan, too. • Much more sophisticated than Oldowan tools • Used for hunting and other purposes…specialized |
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When did Neanderthals show up?
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First appeared 130,000 and lasted until 35,000 years ago
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What did neanderthals look like?
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Very robust and shorter than modern H. Sapiens
○ Advantageous in cold climates |
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What was the first hominid fossil discovered?
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Neanderthal fossils
○ We kind of started backwards • Found in the Neander Tal (valley) of Germany in 1856 |
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Where were neanderthals found?
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Found in Europe, eastern Asia, and Africa
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What tools did neanderthals use?
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• Associated with Mousterian tools
○ Use levallois technique of core preparation ○ Very sophisticated and found with early modern humans too |
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What size were neanderthals crania?
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• Large crania (1520cm3), larger than H.Sapiens (1400)
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What was neanderthals social structure like?
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• Took care of each other, care associated with Neanderthals
○ Family type structure |
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Who did neanderthals coexist with and who replaced them?
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Anatomically modern humans
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Homo sapiens
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Anatomically Modern Humans
• Appeared about 100,000 years ago • Domed foreheads round brain cases • Spread to N. America and S. America - first to new worlds • Possibility that Neanderthals interbred with modern humans • Clear evidence of art, ritual and other examples of culture |
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What is Archaeology?
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Archaeology is the study of the human past, focusing on material culture
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What time scale does archaeology focus on?
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○ Focuses on fully modern humans
○ Time scales of 100-25,000 years; whereas paleoanthropology works on 10,000 to 10 million year time scales |
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Hominids evolved using ______ whereas humans evolved using ______
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Hominids evolved using biology whereas humans evolved using culture
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Archaeologists are much more concerned with _______ evolution and its processes than _______ evolution
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Archaeologists are much more concerned with cultural evolution and its processes than biological evolution
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Archaeological record
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consists of all material made by humans or near-humans revealed by archaeology
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Pleistocene
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geologic period which corresponds to the Paleolithic, "Old Stone Age," in Archaeology
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The Holocene
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followed the Pleistocene and is also a geologic period, which corresponds to the beginning of the Neolithic in Archaeology
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Geologically, we are still in the _______ but NOT in the ______!
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Geologically, we are still in the Holocene but NOT in the Neolithic!
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Domestication
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refers to human interference with the reproduction of plant or animal species so that they become more useful to people and also dependent on them
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How do we detect the domestication of plants and animals in material - i.e. archaeology?
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We can look at the assemblage and compare the ratio of female to male animal bones
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If there are more male bones than females, we can assume that...
(domestication) |
people were preferentially harvesting males, which is hard to do if you are just hunting
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If you are domesticating females, you want to keep females because they are important for...
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milk and reproduction
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What happened to mega fauna at the end of the Pleistocene?
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At the end of the Pleistocene, large mega-fauna died out and were replaced by smaller species
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How did people adjust to the disappearance of mega fauna?
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People changed their diet from large game to broad spectrum foraging - a subsistence strategy based on a wide range of plants and animals using hunting, fishing, and gathering
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Domestication in SW Asia began _____ years ago among _____ foragers
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Domestication in SW Asia began 12,500 years ago among Natufian foragers
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After the climate change...what size of hamlets did Natufians reside in?
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• At the end of the Pleistocene, climate change altered the environment of Natufian foragers and allowed them to aggregate into hamlets of 40 - 150 people
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What was special about natufian structures?
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Natufian structures had relatively elaborate walls and roofs, indicating that they were for year-round use
• Natufians also constructed plaster-lines storage pits in houses for storing grain |
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What other interesting artifacts did archaeologists find in Natufian communities?
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• Archaeologists found massive mortars for grinding seeds
• Found sophisticated artistic artifacts, which indicate sedentary lifeways and identity |
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Around what time were domesticated plants found in Natufian communities?
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• By 10,300 (years ago) domesticated wheat and barely appear in archaeological sites
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What does occupational specialization lead to?
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§ This leads to control and hierarchies of power
§ But it also leads to the ability to dedicate time beyond subsistence to make pottery, develop art, build monumental architecture, etc. |
