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134 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Family of orientation vs. Family of procreation
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family to which you are born vs. establish through marriage
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Descent group
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a permanent social unit whose members claim common ancestry
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Two types of unilineal descent?
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Patrilineal, Matrilineal
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Patrilineal vs. Matrilineal
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lifetime membership in their father’s group (more common) vs.lifetime membership in their mother’s group
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Lineage vs. Clan
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common descent from an apical ancestor (demonstrated descent) vs.common descent from an apical ancestor but cannot demonstrate it (stipulated descent)
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Totem
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a nonhuman (animal or plant) apical ancestor of a clan
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Two different unilocal rules of post-marital residence?
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Patrilocality- Married couples (and kids) live in the husband’s community; Matrilocality- Married couples (and kids) live in the wife’s community
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Marriage?
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No single definition of marriage can account for all of the cross-cultural diversity in marriages
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Incest?
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Sexual relations with a close relative; Incest taboo is a cultural universal; What constitutes incest varies cross-culturally
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Arranged Marriage?
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Negotiations are handled by the immediate families or by go-betweens; (E.g. in Hindu India)
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Exogamy and Endogamy?
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Exogamy is marriage outside a group; Endogamy is marriage within a group (most are this)
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Cross-cousin marriage
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is a marriage with FZ children & MB children (more common)
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Parallel-cousin marriage
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is a marriage with FB children and MZ children;
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Levirate and Sororate (replacement marriage);
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Levirate is marrying brother’s widow; Sororate is marrying sister’s widower;
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Bride price or bride wealth?
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A gift of money or goods from the groom or his kin to the bride’s kin; This grants the groom the right over wife’s children; Can be returned if divorce occurs
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Bride service?
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Requires the groom to work for the bride’s family
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Exchange of females?
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A sister or female relative of the groom is exchanged for the bride
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Gift exchange?
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Involves the exchange of gifts of about equal value between the kin groups of the couple
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Dowry?
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the wife’s group provides substantial gifts to the husband’s family; Correlates with low female status; Much less common than bridewealth
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Factors opposing divorce?
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economic ties, obligations to children, concern about public opinion
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what are the types of Plural marriages?
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Polygamy–marry more than one spouse. Polygyny–man has more than one wife. Polyandry–woman has more than one husband. (Practiced by Tibetans; Effective strategy when resources are scarce)
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Sex/gender roles and sexuality influenced by?
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biology (nature) and environment (nurture)
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Sexual dimorphism?
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differences in male and female biology besides contrasts in breasts and genitalia;
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Gender?
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the cultural construction of male and female characteristics
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Gender roles
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tasks and activities that a culture assigns to the sexes
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Gender stereotypes
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oversimplified but strongly held ideas about the characteristics of males and females
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Gender stratification
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an unequal distribution of rewards (resources, power, prestige, human rights, and personal freedom) between men and women
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Cross-cultural gender patterns
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Subsistence contributions of men and women are roughly equal; Female labor predominates in domestic activities &child care; Women work more hours (subsistence + domestic activities) than men do
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Time and Effort Expended on Subsistence Activities by Men & Women (88 societies)
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Who does the Domestic Work? (92 societies)
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Is there a Double Standard With Respect to Premarital Sex?
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Is there Double Standard with Respect to Extramarital Sex (75 Societies)
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Domestic-public dichotomy
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strong differentiation between the home and the outside world. promotes gender stratification. Gender stratification is reduced when the domestic and public spheres are not sharply separated
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Sex-linked activities
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Men tend to be bigger, stronger, and more mobile than women; Pregnancy, lactation, and child-care generally preclude women from being primary hunters;But activities and spheres of influence of men and women may overlap (e.g., Ju/’hoansi San)
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In general, among foragers?
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Public & domestic spheres least separate; Hierarchy least marked; Aggression & competition most discouraged; Rights & activities of men and women overlap the most; All humans were foragers until 10,000 years ago.
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Gender among horticulturalists
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Women the main producers; Reduced gender strata in matrilineal-matrilocal societies; Female status is high in matrilineal-matrilocal; Inc. gender strata in patrilineal-patrilocal societies.
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Patrilineal-patrilocal complex
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patrilineality, patrilocality, warfare, and male supremacy. Linked to pressure on resources; Intervillage warfare as resources become scarce; Patrilocality &patrilineality keep related men together in same village, where make allies in battle.
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Gender among agriculturalists
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Women not primary cultivators; Social changes affected women bad; Women’s viewed as inferior, Decline of descent groups & polygyny, and inc. nuclear family, isolated women from their kinswomen &cowives; Female sexuality supervised; men enjoy easier divorce and sex
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Patriarchy
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a political system ruled by men in which women have inferior status; Exemplified by practices such as dowry murders, female infanticide, etc.
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Domestic violence
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Family violence and domestic abuse of women are worldwide problems; More common in societies where women are separated from supportive kin
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Gender and industrialism
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B4 1900 1,000,000 American women held unskilled factory jobs. w/ large number of Europe immigration after 1900, the idea “a woman’s place is in the home” developed; Again during World Wars, work outside the home was viewed as women’s patriotic duty.
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Increased female employment was also caused by?
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Inflation; Culture of consumption; Baby boom; Industrial expansion
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Increase in female-headed HHs due to?
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Male migration; Civil strife; Divorce; Abandonment; Widowhood; Unwed adolescent parenthood; Notion that children are women’s responsibility
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female infanticide
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killing the baby if it is female
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dowry murders
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killing their wives to collect money
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Why Religion was created?
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The need for community; the need to understand; Anxiety and Uncertainty;
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Religion?
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is a belief and ritual concerned with supernatural beings, powers, and forces.
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Religion as a need for community stresses what?
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Durkheim-religious effervescence= collective emotional intensity generated by worship. Turner’s notion of communitas=an intense community spirit; a feeling of great social solidarity, equality, and togetherness
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Religion as a need to understand
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Tylor- religion was originated in people’s speculation about dreams, trances, and death; He thought belief in souls was the earliest form of religion, known as animism;
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Religion created for anxiety and uncertainty stresses?
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Freud—humans turn to religion during times of uncertainty; Malinowski noted the need to find comfort in times of stress; The most frightening is death; Through religion people affirm their conviction about life-after-death;
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E.B Tylor
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First anthropologist to study religion. 3 stages: 1.Animism—belief in souls or spiritual beings. 2.Polytheism – belief in multiple gods. 3.Monotheism – belief in a single, all-powerful deity
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Mana?
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a sacred impersonal force that can reside in people, animals, plants, and objects;
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Melanesian mana?
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Similar to our notion of efficacy or luck. Acquired by chance or hard work, and can be manipulated (e.g., through magic). Success attributed to mana, and failure to a lack of mana
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Polynesian mana?
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Mana attached to political offices. Chiefs had more mana than ordinary ppl. Contact with them considered dangerous. Thus, the bodies and possessions of high chiefs were taboo
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Magic?
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supernatural techniques intended to accomplish specific aims
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Imitative magic?
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magicians imitate bad effect on image of victim. (ex.sticking pins in “voodoo dolls”)
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Contagious magic?
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whatever is done to an object is believed to affect a person who once had contact with it.
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Rituals?
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Formal behavior performed in sacred places @ set times. Include liturgical orders and Inherently social
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liturgical orders
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sequences of words&actions invented prior to performance
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Inherently social
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participation signals acceptance of a common social and moral order
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Rites of passage and three stages
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Associated with life transitions. 3 stages: Separation=withdrawal from group &moving from one place or status to another. Liminality=period b/w states; ppl leave one place or state but have not yet entered the next. Incorporation=ppl reenter society w/new status, having completed the rite
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Contrasts between Liminality & Ordinary Social Life
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Liminality=Transition, Homogeneity, Equality, Anonymity, Absence of property/status/rank, Nakedness/uniform, Humility, Acceptance of pain/suffering. Normal S.Structure=State, Heterogeneity, Structure, Inequality, Names, Property, Status, Dress distinctions, Rank, Pride, Avoidance of pain/suffering
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Totemism?
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totem uses nature as a model for society. People relate to nature through totems; Groups have different totems—natural diversity as a model for social diversity;
Unity of the social order is enhanced through symbolic association with totems |
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how does religion help ensure proper behavior?
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Offer rewards &punishments, prescribe a code of ethics and morality.
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Leveling mechanism?
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a custom or social action that operates to reduce status differences
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Wallace's four types of religion
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Shamanic, Communal, Olympian, Monotheistic
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Shamanic religion?
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Most characteristic of foraging societies. Shamans=Part-time religious figures; mediate b/w ppl &supernatural beings; (ex. curers, spiritualists, astrologers, palm readers, diviners)
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Communal religion?
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among some foragers, but more typical of farming societies. Includes shamans &community rituals (ex. harvest rituals & ceremonies, collective rites of passage). Are polytheistic= believe in more than 1 "god"
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Olympian religion?
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First appeared in states. Full-time, professional priesthoods organized in hierarchy. are polytheistic= gods of love, war, sea, and death
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Monotheistic religion?
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Priesthoods. All supernatural phenomena r manifestations of, a single eternal, omniscient, omnipotent, omnipresent higher being.
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Major religions
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Christianity=2.1 billion(33%). Islam=1.3 billion(21%). Nonreligious/Atheist=1.1 billion (16%). Hinduism=900 million (14%). Primal-indigenous=300 million(6%). Chinese traditional religion=394 million(6%). Buddhism=376 million(6%).
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Revitalization/Nativistic movements
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Social movements that occur in times of change. Religious leaders emerge and alter/ revitalize a society.Ex:Colonial-era Iroquois reformation led by Handsome Lake. His vision offered new plan for the new society(Drinking, quarreling and witchcraft would end, Iroquois would copy European farming tech)
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Cargo cults?
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Emerge with regular contact with industrial societies; but lack their wealth, technology, and living standards. Name derived from a focus on European cargo
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Indigenous communities attempt to?
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Explain European domination and wealth. Achieve similar success (of cargo cults) magically-by mimicking European behavior & manipulating symbols of the desired lifestyle.
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Modern world system?
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a world in which nations are economically and politically interdependent
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Capitalist World economy
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shapes the world system and the relations between countries within that system
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significance of 15th century European exploration
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Linked Old and New Worlds. Paved way for exchanges of ppl,resources, ideas, and diseases.
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significance of 16th and 17th century
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colonial plantation of monocrop production=(sugar/cotton). Emergence of colonial plantation fueled transatlantic slave trade. International trade led to the capitalist world economy–committed to production 4sale to max. profits;
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Capital?
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wealth or resources invested in business, with the intent of producing a profit
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World-system theory
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identifiable social system, based on wealth and power differentials, extends beyond individual states
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Wallerstein proposed?
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nations within the world system occupy three different positions:
Core, Semiperiphery , Periphery |
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Core?
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Strongest,most powerful nations.
Monopolize world finance. Sophisticated tech.&mechanized production. Manufacture products that flow to other core nations |
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Semiperiphery?
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Industrialized, export industrial goods. Lack the power&economic dominance of core nations. E.g., Brazil
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Periphery?
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Less mechanized economies than those in the semiperiphery. Produce raw materials, agricultural commodities, &human labor for export
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Industrial Revolution
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Historical transformation(in Europe, after 1750)of“traditional” into “modern”. Developed from the domestic system of manufacture =>moved into factories on a large scale Industrialization fueled urban growth.Began in England rather than in France
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france industrial revolution
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able to increase production by augmenting manufacturing system
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England industrial revolution
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a smaller population; had to industrialize to meet mounting demand. Factors favoring English Industrialization: Natural resources, Location at crossroads of Int. trade. Demand for staples from settler families
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Effects of Industrialization (Stratification)
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Industrialization led to uneven prosperity. factory owners began recruiting the poor (including women and children) Social ills accompanying industrialization: Pollution, Crowded& unsanitary housing, Insufficient water and sewage disposal, Disease, Rising death rates
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Marx – viewed stratification as a division b/w what two opposed classes?
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Bourgeoisie=Capitalists owned means of production(ex. factories, large farms) Dominated the means of communication, schools, and other key institutions. Proletariat= working class. sold labor to survive.
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what were Webers 3 dimensions of stratification (in contrast to Marx’s economic-based view)?
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Wealth (economic status), Power (political status), Prestige (social status)
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Ethnic groups
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Members share common background. believed to have: Common ancestry, culture, territory, language, history.
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Ethnicity
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identification w/and feeling part of, an ethnic group.
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Status
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the various positions that people in society occupy. All ppl occupy multiple statuses. Ascribed vs. achieved statuses
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Status shifting
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Some statuses (esp. ascribed) are mutually exclusive, while others are contextual. (ex. male & female=exclusive; being Senator & mom=contextual)
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Race
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an ethnic group assumed to have a biological basis. (Only cultural constructions of race r possible)
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Two Approaches to Human Biological Diversity?
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Racial Classification (now largely abandoned), The Current Explanatory Approach
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Explanatory Approaches?
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Natural selection explains variation in skin color?, Melanin is a chemical that determines skin color & is larger in darker skin to: Protect from sunburn, cancer; Limits production of vitamin D.
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Cultural construction of “race” in the United States
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“race” is ascribed at birth; not on the basis of heredity/genotype. Rules of descent assign social identity on the basis of ancestry. Hypodescent.
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Hypodescent?
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children of different groups are automatically placed in the minority group. rare out of US
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Cultural construction of “race” in Japan?
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Image of racial/ethnic homogeneity cultivated, despite presence of minority. “Pure” majority Japanese define themselves by opposition to others (minority & outsiders). Certain ethnic groups(burakumin) regarded as having biological basis.
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Burakumin?
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Descendants of historically low-status social class. Physically & genetically indistinguishable, but stigmatized as a separate, inferior race
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Cultural construction of “race” in Brazil?
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allow individuals to change their racial classification. racial class recognizes phenotypical variation. More than 500 distinct racial labels. ppls’ racial labels can change with phenotype characters.RL ppl use to describe themselves/others vary. No hypodescent
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Nations/nation-states
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Autonomous, centrally organized political entities. Most arent ethnically homogeneous
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Nationalities
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ethnic groups that once had, or wish to have or regain, autonomous political status (their own country)
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Assimilation
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minority group adopts patterns and norms of a dominant host culture. May be forced
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Plural society (F. Barth)
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society combining ethnic contrasts, ecological specialization, & economic interdependence of groups.
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Ethnic boundaries are most stable and enduring when groups?
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Occupy different ecological niches, Dont compete, Depend on each other’s activities, Exchange w/ each other.
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Multiculturalism?
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view cultural diversity in a country as something good and desirable. Opposed to assimilation
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Applied anthropology?
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Application of anthropological data, perspectives, theory, and methods to identify, assess, and solve contemporary social problems
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Types of Applied Anthropology
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Biological, Applied, Cultural, Linguistic
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Biological Anthropology
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Work in public health, nutrition, genetic counseling, substance abuse, epidemiology, aging, mental illness, and forensics.
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Applied archaeologists
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Locate, study, and preserve prehistoric and historic sites threatened by development (Cultural Resource Management).
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Cultural anthropologists
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Work with social workers, businesspeople, advertising professionals, factory workers, medical professionals, school personnel, and economic development experts.
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Linguistic anthropologists
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Frequently work with schools in districts with various languages.
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Cultural Resource Management
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How to preserve a significant remains when sites are threatened by development?
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Market Research
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How to help companies make excessive profits (at the expense of ordinary people)?
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Development anthropology
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Branch of applied anthropology that focuses on social issues. help to plan and guide policy concerned about: How cultures change, Equity, How anthropologists can inform and transform the process of international development
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Mechanisms of Change
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Invention, Diffusion, Acculturation
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Equity
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“the condition or quality of being just, impartial and fair”. Commonly stated goal of recent development policy is to promote equity. Equity assumes: non-discrimination, even distribution of wealth
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Strategies for innovation?
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To maximize social and economic benefits, development projects must: Be culturally /technically compatible; Respond to locally perceived needs; Involve men & women in planning; Harness traditional organizations; Be flexible
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Overinnovation
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too much change by development projects. Must avoid it if they are to be successful.PPl resist major changes in daily lives. Need to be sensitive to: traditional cultures; and specific concerns of PPL
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Underdifferentiation
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tendency to overlook cultural diversity & view them as more alike
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Third World models
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Best models for economic development are found in target communities.Descent groups, with their traditional communalism and corporate solidarity, have important roles in develpoment.
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Environmental Anthropology
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Corporations instigate economic change in Third World nations Economic development often led to ecological devastation; Even well-intentioned interference (ex. by environme) may be treated as a form of cultural domination.
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Antimodernism?
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rejection of the modern in favor of what is perceived as an earlier way of life;
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McWorld vs jihad
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describe the modern forces that promote global integration; describe forces that oppose it.
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Public transcript vs. Hidden transcript
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open, public interactions between dominators and the oppressed; critique of power that goes on offstage, where the dominators cannot see or hear it
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Hegemony (Gramsci)
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complying w/ domination and accepting its “naturalness” whereby, the ruling class of a capitalist society coerce the working class to adopt its values in maintaining the State
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Methods of curbing resistance
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Hegemony, Convincing subordinates that they will eventually gain power, Isolating subordinates and supervising them closely
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“Weapons of the weak” (Scott)
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Use of subtle,non-confrontational methods to resist domination (ex. Malay peasants) Subordinates may publicly use metaphors, euphemisms, folk tales to resist. Elites discourage public gatherings where resistance is most likely Festivals (ex. Carnival) are ex. of antihegemonic discourses
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Cultural imperialism
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Spread or advance of one culture at the expense of others; Mass medias act as agents of cultural imperialism; Media also allow local groups to express them to wider audiences (ex, television in Brazil)
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Diaspora
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ppl living outside their birth country
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Postmodern?
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the blurring and breakdown of established categories, distinctions, and boundaries;
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Essentialism
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inaccurate view of identities as fixed; Identities are fluid and multiple. ex some Peruvian mestizos as indigenous; Identities must be seen as: Potentially plural; Emerging through a specific process; Ways of being someone or something in particular times and places;
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