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95 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Phenetics
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An attempt to classify organisms based on overall similarity, usually in morphology or other observable traits regardless of their phylogeny or evolutionary relation
Doesn't distinguish between ancestral and derived traits |
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Cladistics
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Method of classifying species of organisms into groups called clades
Does discriminate between ancestral and derived traits |
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Allopatrics Speciation
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Occurs when biological populations of the same species become isolated due to geographical changes
Geographic/reproductive isolation Differences accumulate over hundreds of years |
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Parapatirc Speciation
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Referring to organisms whose ranges do not significantly overlap but are immediately adjacent to each other
Some reproductive isolation/partial geographic Overlap in locations slightly but become different species |
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Anagenesis
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Transfomation of a single species overtime /linear pattern
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Cladogenesis
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Evolutionary splitting event in which each branch and its smaller branches form a clade
Looking at branching events/formation of one or more new species from another over time |
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Adaptive Radiation
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Rapid diversification of new life forms into new ecological niches (i.e. when dinosaurs went extinct, they left niches that mammals took over)
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Gradualism vs. Punctuated Equilibrium
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Gradualism: slow change over time; Darwin's idea/very gradual, cumulative change, driven by natural selection and environmental change
Evolution is a process, focuses on adaptation and selection within a population Punctuated Equilibrium: Niles Eldridge and Stephen Jay Gould (1972); macroevolution that occurs in short period of rapid change (e.g. climate change), followed by periods of stasis; evolution is an event |
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Homology vs. Analogy
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Homology: structures shared from a common ancestor (e.g. skeletal structure of land animals and humans)
Analogy: similar structures that serve the same function (e.g. bats, butterflies, owls) |
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Biological Species Concept
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Considered same species if:
Naturally interbreed and produce fertile offspring |
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Recognition Species Concept
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A species is a group that recognizes other members of that group as possible mates
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Ecological Species Concept
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A group of organisms that share a niche
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Adapids
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Fossil lemurs
Eocene Long snout, grooming claw North America, Europe, Asia |
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Omomyidae
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Fossil tarsiers
North America, Europe, Asia Large eye orbits, small body mass Eocene |
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Plesiadapiforms
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Not true primates (weak evidence)
Paleocene Some dental similarities No post-orbital bar Small brain |
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Parapithecids
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Platyrrhine (New World Monkey) ancestors
Oligocene Fayum Basin, Egypt |
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Propliopithecidae
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Catarrhine (Old World Monkey) ancestors
Oligocene Resembles gibbons South America Possibly same as Aegyptpithecus Extinct genus of ape |
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Sivapithecus
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Modern day orangutan
Miocene Extinct primate |
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Gigantopithecus
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Largest primate ever
Fossil ape Sexually dimorphic |
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Humans and Chimps
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Humans are more like chimpanzees than any other living animal (anatomy, behavior, DNA 98% genetically the same)
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Two Key Anatomical Differences Between Humans and Chimpanzees
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Bipedalism and brain size
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Anatomy of Bipedalism
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Legs longer than arms (knuckle walking posture), slightly elevated towards head when on all fours, s-shaped spinal column in humans, vertebra increase in size as you go down vertebral column, foramen magnum positioned anterior on base of skull, innominate (ilium) is broad and more medially curved, proximal femur, femoral head is larger, longer femoral neck
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Adaptations of the Knee
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Locking knee unlike apes (essential for habitual bipedal locomotion), knees are under center of gravity in hominids (an inward bevel to knees)
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Adaptations of the Foot
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Large big toe in line with rest of foot
Robust first metatarsal (large-provides more surface area for more efficiency for walking bipedal) Large calcaneus (heel bone) Transverse and longitudinal arch (chimps don't have the longitudinal arch) |
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What came first, big brains or bipedalism?
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Bipedalism
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When did the first bipedal hominids emerge?
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About 6-7 million years ago in Africa
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Piltdown Hoax
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A hoax in which bone fragments were presented as remains of a previously unknown early human. These fragments consisted of parts of a skull and jawbone said to have been collected in 1912 from a gravel pit in Piltdown, England. It was named after the collector Charles Dawson; it was actually the jawbone of an orangutan that was combined with the skull of a modern human
It is prominent due to the attention paid to the issue of human evolution and the length of time until it was exposed (more than 40 years) |
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Laetoli
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Fossilized footprints found in an ancient volcanic bed
Dated 3.4-3.7 mya Clearly a bipedal hominid Found by Mary Leakey |
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Sahelanthropus tchadensis
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Chad (Central Africa)
6-7 mya (biostratigraphy) Large brow ridge, large teeth resembling hominid, small canines (apes have large canines), thick enamel (apes have thin tooth enamel), minimal prognathism, orientation of nick muscles how you would expect a biped to be) |
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Orrorin tugenensis
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"Millennium Man"
Tugen Hills, Kenya 6 mya Probable biped hominid based largely off of multiple partial femurs |
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Ardipithecus ramidus
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"Root ape"
Ethiopia 4.4 and 5.8 mya Woodland setting, not savanna Definite bipedal hominid |
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Australopithecus anamensis
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Near Lake Turkana, Kenya
4.2 - 3.9 mya Definite biped Teeth, skull fragments, arm and leg bones |
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Australopithecus afarensis
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"Lucy"
"Laetoli footprints" Ethiopia, Tanzania 3 - 3.9 mya Best understood australopithecine Sexually dimorphic Hominid characteristics: shorter, broader pelvis, weight-bearing knee Ape-like characteristics: small brain size (420cc), prognosis jaws, parallel dental arcade |
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Kenyanthropus platyops
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Lake Turkana, Kenya
3.5 - 3.2 mya Flat face profile Bipedal |
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Australopithecus africanus
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South Africa
3.3 - 2.5 mya Gracile "Taung Child" Raymond Dart |
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Raymond Dart
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Discovered first early hominid in 1924
"The Taung Child" Australopithecus africanus South Africa in limestone cave deposits 3.3 - 2.5 mya Cranial capacity 420cc Compared to afarensis: more globular cranium, no sectorial complex remnant, more parabolic dental arcade, smaller teeth, less prognathism |
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Robust Australopithecines (aka Paranthropus)
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A. boisei, A. aethiopicus, A. robustus
Found East and South Africa 2.5 - 1.0 mya Dietary specialized hominids Not direct ancestors |
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Anatomical Features of Robust Australopithecines
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Robust crania and teeth
Adaptation to heavy mastication; very large molars (post-canine megadontia) Large zygomatic arch with large temporal fossa (for temporalis and masseter muscles) Dental studies suggest they ate nuts, seeds, and grass |
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Australopithecus aethipicus
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2.5 mya
Kenya Robust Cranial capacity 410cc Post-orbital constriction Flat face Massive sagittal crest Post-canine megadontia |
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Australopithecus boisei
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2.4 - 1.4 mya
Tanzania, Kenya Robust Cranial capacity 510-530cc Post-canine megadontia Large sagittal crest Post-orbital constriction |
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Australopithecus robustus
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2.1 - 1.4 mya
South Africa Cranial capacity 530cc Less prognathism Megadont premolars and molars Post-orbital constriction |
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Traits That Characterize Early Hominids Relative to Great Apes?
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Small or no diastema
Larger cranial capacity Increased bipedality |
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Mosaic Evolution
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The concept that evolutionary change takes place in some body parts or systems without simultaneous changes in other parts
(e.g. in humans, bipedal features developed before significant brain increase) |
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Why is "Lucy" important?
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At the time it was one of the oldest and most complete fossils found
Taught us about afarensis and bipedalism |
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Sir Arthur Keith's Cerebral Rubicon
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The minimum cranial capacity required for a specimen to be classified as a certain paleospecies or genus
(e.g. Homo sapiens: 900cc) Anything below 750cc is Australopithecus and anything above is Homo |
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The Genus Homo
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Derived from an early australopithecine ancestor
Shares many features with early hominids Many derived features compared to earlier hominids |
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Derived Features of Homo
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Increased cranial capacity from 400cc-550cc to 650-1500cc
Increased cranial vault thickness Reduced post-orbital constriction Rounder brain case Reduced alveolar prognathism, jaw size, and molar tooth size Larger body size Increased lower limb length |
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Homo habilis
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"Handy-man"
2.4 - 1.6 mya Eastern Africa, South Africa Gracile, rounded cranium Average cranial capacity= 630cc |
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Derived Features of Homo habilis
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Smaller face, less prognathic
More parabolic dental arcade; chimps have more parallel tooth rows Smaller post-canine teeth More vertical face, larger browridge Discovered by Leakey family in Tanzania, East Africa |
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Homo rudolfensis
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2.4 - 1.6 mya
East Turkana Differences from H. habilis: cranial capacity 775cc, less prognathic, forehead rises above browridge, larger, flatter face, large post-canine teeth, more human like limb proportions |
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Oldowan Tools
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Earliest tools 2.5 million years ago
First evidence of humans making anything Possibly used for cutting, dismembering carcasses for meat, bashing, marrow extraction |
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Homo erectus "firsts"
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First to leave Africa
First to systematically hunt First to use fire First to have modern human-like body proportions |
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Morphology of Homo erectus
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Cranial capacity ~900cc average
Thick cranial vault Large supraorbital torus Receding forehead Sagittal keel Nuchal/occipital torus (ridge on back of skull) Nasal spine Large mandible, wide ramus (bridge on side of face) Shovel-shaped incisors Barrel shaped chest Thick post-cranial bones Body size dramatically increased compared to earlier hominids |
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Dmanisi Hominids
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Earliest hominid find outside Africa (East Europe in Georgia)
Crania show some similarities to H. erectus Stone tools, similar to early ones from Africa (Oldowan-like) |
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Java, Indonesia
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Six sites have yielded Homo erectus
1.8 - 1.6 mya |
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Cenozoic Era
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Two periods, seven epochs
Tertiary: 65-1.8 mya: paleocene, eocene, oligocene, miocene, pliocene Quaternary: 1.8-present: pleistocene, holocene New niches for mammals; adaptive radiation of all mammals-successful because of location, learning, flexibility of behavior |
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Nariokotome Boy "Turkana Boy"
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Remarkably complete skeleton of H. erectus
Illustrates evolutionary development Was only 10 years old but 5ft tall, growth habits like apes but body and brain size hominid-like Kenya |
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"Lucy"
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A.afarensis
~ 3.2 mya 40% of skeleton Shows evidence of small skull capacity like apes, and bipedal upright walking of humans |
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Movius Line
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A boundary across Eurasia separating Paleolithic hand axe industries from those without hand axes
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Gondwanaland
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South America, Africa, Antarctica, Australia, and India
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Laurasia
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North America, Greenland, Europe, Asia
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Palecene
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65-55 mya
Cooler than Cretaceous Europe + N. America + Asia= Laurasia S. America and Antarctica connected still Plesiadapiformes: primate ancestor? Some dental similarities Not true primates, no post-orbital bar, small brain |
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Eocene
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55-34 mya
First primates of modern aspect Tropical climate Adaptive radiation of prosimians Adapidae and Omomyidae |
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Oligocene
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34-23 mya
No connection between North and South America Much cooler period Many prosimian-like primates die off First definite anthropoids Fayum Basin, Egypt Parapithecidae, Propliopithecidae New and Old World monkey diverge |
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Branisella
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Oldest member of superfamily Ceboidea
Extinct New World Monkey Oligocene of Bolivia, South America Oldest fossil New World Monkey |
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Miocene
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23-5 mya
Adaptive radiation of hominoids (first ape) First found in Africa Early: chimp size, sexual dimorphism Middle: hominoids migrate from Africa to Asia and Europe Late: greatest geographical diversity |
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Proconsul Species
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Miocene (early)
Fossil ape Mix of ape and Old World Monkey characteristics Africa (Kenya, Uganda) Extinct genus of primates V-shaped dental arcade Semi-sectorial anterior premolars Alveolar prognathism Y-5 bundodont molars Longer forelimbs (monkey-like) Arboreal quadruped No tail |
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KNM ER 1808
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Female, woven bone on long bones
Chronic hypervitamintosis A Perhaps eating raw liver of carnivores |
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Technological Trends in Homo Erectus
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Expansion of the brain enabled H. erectus to develop sophisticated tools
Biface stone was worked on both sides and used to cut, scrape, pound, and dig Seens as a potential hunter and scavenger |
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Tools of Acheulian Industry
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Side scraper, point, end scraper, burin
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Trends in Homo Erectus
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Liked to travel
Tools on Flores; suggest they constructed ocean-going vessels Left Africa for a very cold climate Bone awl and needle found (used to sew; could have been making clothing) |
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Acheulean Tradition
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Found in Africa, West Asia, Europe
1.5 million to 125 thousand years ago Hand axes: biface, multi-purpose tool (chopping, digging, sharpening, throwing) Modified flake tools: scrapers |
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Homo erectus and Fire
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Benefits: softens, makes some foods edible, kills parasites, harden wooden spear, provide light in caves
Expand into colder climates; warmth |
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Archaic Homo sapiens
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Early:
Homo heidelbergensis Homo antecessor Late: Homo neandertalensis Homo sapiens neandertalensis |
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Pleistocene Environments
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Flucuations of glacial/interglacial periods
Glacial period: reduced rainfall, expansion of deserts, populations are more restricted Interglacial period: increased rainfall |
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Homo heidelbergensis compared to Homo erectus
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Increased brain size ~1150cc
Greatest breadth at parietals Reduced supraorbital torus, divided ridge Smaller molars |
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European Homo heidelbergensis
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Spain, Germany, Greece
850-530 thousand years ago Found in deep cave shaft |
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Specific Sites of Homo heidelbergensis
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Homo heidelbergensis:
Atatpurerca, Spain Steinheim, Germany Petralona, Greece Bodo, Ethiopia Kabwe, Zambia |
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Neanderthals
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Homo sapiens neandertalensis or Homo neandertalensis?
200-35 thousand years ago Europe and Middle East only |
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Neanderthal Distribution
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None in Africa
Spain, Italy, Croatia, Iraq, Israel |
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Neanderthal Cranial Characteristics
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Large cranial capacity (1520cc); larger than us
Occipital bun, may account for difference in brain size Low forehead Lack of chin Large nose Prognathic mid-face Large arching browridges |
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Neanderthal Post-Crania Characteristics
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Large, robust post-cranial skeleton
Barrel-chested Shorter limbs (conserve heat in cold climates) Large muscle attachments |
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Mouseterian Tool Industry
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Specialized tools for different purposes; wide variety
45 thousand years ago Prepared-core stone tool culture of the Neanderthals Scrapers, wooden spears, point, hand axe |
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Neandertals and Language
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Cultural complexity=possibility
Anatomy of the hyoid=possibility Endocranial casts=necessary neuroanatomy was present |
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Neandertal Culture
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Intentional burials
Settlement (wide variety, open caves, rock shelters) Moldova, Ukraine: oval ring of mammoth bones, housing structure formation? Fire ubiquitous Hunted large game (spears) |
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Out-of-Africa
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Human biological variation very recent (100 thousand years ago)
Mitochondrial DNA indicate that we are descended from an African lineage More variation in African mtDNA than in any other groups (other groups very similar to each other and other groups) Complete replacement Come from a species out of Africa |
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Multi-regional Model
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Regional continuity
More lumpers than splitters Modern humans being the same species; Homo erectus becomes modern Asians, Neanderthals becoming modern Europeans etc. Multiple origins of Homo sapiens from existing local populations Populations connected by enough gene flow to make them the same species |
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Upper Paleolithic
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40,000 years ago
Europe, northern Asia, Middle East and northern Africa Eurasia covered by tundra-vast pasture Hunted large herd animals (reindeer, horse, bison, fish) First symbolic representation: 35 thousand years ago, cave art, small sculptures, engraving on tools |
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South American Rafting Theory
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Explains how new world monkeys got from Africa to South America
Made it on islands |
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Miocene Ape Radiation and Crash
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During the early Miocene, tectonic movement distributed across Europe and Asia and at the end all of the apes died except for species we see today
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Fossil Primates Locomotion and Diet
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Mostly fruit
No evidence of bipedalism |
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Partial Replacement Model
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Hybridization Model
Able to breed and have fertile offspring |
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Ancient DNA
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Work in 2010 on Neanderthal fossils suggest a small amount of admixture (1-4%)
Replacement probably Breeding with Neanderthal probably |
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Levallois Technique
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A method of making stone tools in which a stone core is prepared in such a way that finished tools can be removed from it by a final blow
Prepared-core method |
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Apidium
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Oligocene
Fayum Basin, Egypt Extinct primates |
