Anthro 101 Exam 2

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convergent evolution

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Process of adapting to the same environmental forces in similar way. Ex. Fish and turtles: both need to adapt to water

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homologies

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Similarities jointly inherited from a common ancestor

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analogies

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Similarities due to adapting in similar ways

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sexual dimorphism

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Pronounced anatomical and behavioral differences between males and females

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brachiation

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Branch Swinging, characteristic of gibbons, siamangs, and some New World Monkeys

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trends in primate evolution

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Grasping- Opposable thumbs
Smell to sight- Most important method of obtaining information
Nose to hand- Main touch organ
Brain complexity
Parental Investment- Parents invest a lot in one offspring, don't have litters
Sociality- Is important

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arboreal

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Tree-dwelling; arboreal primates include gibbons, New World monkeys, and many Old World Monkeys

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terrestrial

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Ground dwelling; baboons, macaques, and humans are terrestrial primates; gorillas spend most of their time on the ground

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traits of New World and Old World monkeys

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rounder skulls, flatter faces, mobile lips (to help make more facial expressions)

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primate traits

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hominins

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A member of the human lineage after its split from ancestral chimpsl the therm hominin is used to describe all the human species that ever have existed, excluding chimps and gorillas

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bipedalism

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Walking on two feet, key feature distinguishing early hominins from the apes

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foramen magnum

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hole at the base of the skill for the spinal cord (placement is important for determining if a species was bipedal (towards front—bipedal)

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dentition

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emergence of large check teeth (molars) and much smaller front teeth, characteristics of Australopthecines; shift from parallel to parabolic dental arcade

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Australopithecines (those mentioned in lecture)

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(approx 4.5- 1.5 mya) small-bodied, bipedal, small brains; moved out into the open savannah during the day; very diverse group

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genus Homo

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cave-painting

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many of animals of the time; theories of why:
-magic or ritual behavior—based on patterns of their paintings
-historical record—establish one, date important things
-attempt to control animal reproduction—“ceremonies of increase”: paint pregnant animals and have ceremony
-response to animal scarcity—correlation between frequency of the animals painted on the wall and their scarcity outside

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tool traditions and associated hominins

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Upper Paleolithic because of the tools location in the upper layers of the Earth. BLADE TOOLS- twice as long than the width...more efficient. Number of distinct tool types increased: job tools, physical properties

Scrapers, burins

Homo

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relative dating methods

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Dating technique, ex: stratigraphy, that establishes a time frame in relation to other strata or materials, rather than absolute dates in numbers

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absolute dating methods

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Establish dates in numbers or ranges of numbers; examples include TL, ESR dating

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stratigaphy

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Science that examines the ways in which earth sediments are deopsited in demarcated layers known as strata

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biases in the fossil record

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fossil record not accurate representation of all plants and animals that have ever lived because hard parts preserve better than soft parts

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forensic anthropology

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The application of the methods and theory of physical anthropology and archaeology to legal matters

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hunting and gathering (foraging)

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hunting and gathering relies on food that is naturally available in the environment; oldest strategy; Ik crisis in Uganda (land taken away from them to be national parks, gov’t forced them to be farmers—didn’t realize difference; had to change lifestyle); correlates of foraging: mobility, division of labor by gender, egalitarianism (social equality), food sharing and cooperation

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horticulture

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production of plants without technology; no irrigation systems→ fields can only be reused so many times because nutrients exploited so have to shift locations; slash-and-burn cultivation

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agriculture

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same piece of land cultivated permanently; plowing, domesticated animals, irrigation

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pastoralism

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depends on herds of domesticated animals; animals focus of daily life; adaptation strategy to environment that is unable to support population through other means; nomadism and transhumance

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correlates of adaptive strategies

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types of reciprocity

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Generalized- purest form, characteristic of exchanges between closely related people...expect nothing in return
Balanced- Social distance increases, as does need to reciprocate...expects something in return
Negative- Social distance is greatest, reciprocation is most calculated...dealing with people you hardly know, establish trust

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redistribution

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goods flow to center for dispersal

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egalitarianism

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Lacks status distinctions except for those based on age, gender, and individual qualities, talents and achievements

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big man

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Regional figure found among tribal horticulturalists and pastoralists. The big man occupies no office but creates his reputation through entrepreneurship and generosity to others. Neither his wealth nor his position passes to his heirs.

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chief

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position passed down through ancestry;

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bands

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foragers; least complex form of sociopolitical organization; small, nuclear families related to each other; egalitarian (no source of inequality and if individual members don’t conform they are punished through ridicule, gossip, shunned); based on reciprocity (minimal conflicts) ; no formal leadership (associated with talents or skills that can benefit the group; usually kinship, but not always (sometimes sodalities)

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tribes

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horticulturalists and pastoralists; no central authority; village headman is the tribal leader—explicitly recognized but no power to enforce Is point, leads by example; temporary positions can be activated

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chiefdom

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transitional; ranked societies; permanent political regulation (positions have to be filled, chief position passed down) formal authority; punishment; redistribution; surplus of goods given to chief who redistributes to people and reinforces the power of the role of the chief; less internal violence because deviant individuals can be punished

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states

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Sociopolitical system...Formal, central government...Division into classes of wealth, power, occupation, and prestige.

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potlatch

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Competitive feast among Indians on the North Pacific Coast of North America

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segmentary lineage organization

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alliance that can be activated during conflict in tribes; large lump of kinship potential (not closely related) that you can get aid from if you need it

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slash-and-burn cultivation

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used in horticulture; land cleared by cutting down (slashing) and burning forests or bush or by setting fire to the grass covering a plot—vegetation broken down, pests killed and ashes fertilize soil, then crops are harvested

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transhumance

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One of two variants of pastoralism; part of the population moves seasonally with the herds while the other part remains in home villages

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nomadism

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Movement throughout the year by the whole pastoral group (men, women, and children) with their animals; more generally, such constant movement in pursuit of strategic resources

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sodalities

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Pantribal...A nonkin-based group that exists throughout a tribe, spanning several villages

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affinal kin

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Relatives by marriage, whether of lineals (son's wife) or collaterals (sister's husband)

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consanguineal kin

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relationships though blood

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cross-cousins and parallel cousins

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Parallel: Children of siblings of the same sex, Cross: Children of siblings of the opposite sex

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bridewealth and dowry

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Dowry: Gifts from wife’s family to husband’s family. Bridewealth: Gifts from husband’s family to wife’s family

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family of orientation

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Nuclear family in which one is born and grows up

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family of procreation

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Nuclear family established when one marries and has children

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marriage

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social institution that reflects local, social and cultural realities; changes over time due to needs of people and each system of marriage has certain rules (caring for children, regulating sexual relations, establishing and obligations, forging alliances)

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matrilineal/matrilocal

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Lineal: Unilineal descent rule in which people join the mother's group automatically at birth and stay members throughout life

Local: Customary residence with the wife's relatives after marriage, so that children grow up in their mother's community

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patrilineal/patrilocal

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Lineal: Unilineal descent rule in which people join the father's group automatically at birth and stay members throughout life

Local: Customary residence with the husband's relatives after marriage, so that children grow up in their father's community

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lineal and collateral kin

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Lineal kin: Any of ego's ancestors or descendants on the direct line of descent that leads to and from ego

Collateral kin: A genealogical relative who is not in ego's direct line, such as B, Z, FB, or MZ.

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incest taboo

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- It happens, although tabooed
- Instinctive horror
- Biological degeneration
- Attempt and Contempt
- Marry out or die out

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endogamy

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Marry inside of group

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exogamy

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Marry outside of group

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polygamy

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Plural marriage

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polygyny

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Several wives

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polyandry

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Several husbands

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functions of kinship

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-Socialization
-Transmission of property (inheritance)
-Transfer of social position (succession)
-Provide aid

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alternative gender roles

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Acceptance of ambiguity. Native American creation story...still being "transformed"

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intersex

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Neither unambiguously male or female

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xanith, hijra, “two-spirit” role

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Have rights/attributes of male and female

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nadle, guevedoce

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Hermaphredite..."spiritually gifted" ... decreased testosterone production

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feminization of poverty

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Increasing representation of women among America's poorest people. Women get low wages and poor benefits