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90 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
The intensity of sound is measured in Hertz. True/false
Ans: False; Hz is used for measuring frequency. The intensity or the loudness of the sound is measure in decibels (dB).
Taste is 70% smell. True/false
: false but pretty close. Taste is 80% smell. Page 573
Semicircular canals in human ear help in hearing. True/false
Ans: False; the stimulus of sound is perceived by cochlea in the inner ear. Three semi circular canals help in maintaining a dynamic equilibrium of our body. When we twirl on the dance floor or go through a rough boat ride, these are the receptors that make us aware of that situation and maintain our balance.
A neural tunic of the eye ball is called sclera. True/false
Ans: False; the neural tunic of the eye ball is called retina. Sclera is the fibrous tunic and the middle layer choroid is a vascular tunic of the eye ball.
Adrenal cortex in the adrenal gland is closely associated with the parasympathetic nervous system. True/false.
Ans: False; this gland is considered a modified Sympathetic gland, therefore has an important role to play in the sympathetic system. There is no parasympathetic supply to this gland.
The Nissl bodies are found in the osteocytes. True/false
Ans: False; they are found in the cell bodies (soma) of neurons.
Neural innervations is not involved with the muscular growth. True/false
Answer – false
Actin and myosin are part of smooth muscles even if there are no striations in this muscle. True/false
Ans: True
Rotation is the only movement allowed between atlas and axis. True/false
Answer – true
Parathyroid hormone reduces calcium levels in the blood. True/false
Ans: False; PTH raises the level of calcium by stimulating osteoclasts in the bones.
Skin is an important sensory organ. Even if there is a layer of dead cells on the top, it still can take many stimuli from outer environment. True/false
Ans: True
. We cannot live a normal life without a healthy negative feedback system. True/false
Ans: True
Both nitric oxide and ATP can act as neurotransmitter. True/false
Ans: True
Chromosome number is halved at the end of mitotic division in a cell. True/false
Ans: False. Mitosis is an equational division, therefore, the number of chromosomes stay constant in the daughter cells.
(Read about the states of cell division – mitosis from your book; interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase and cytokinesis and keep the outline as discussed in the lecture)
Define isotopes.
Ans: Usually the elements do not consist of only one type of atom. With in an element, the atoms sometimes differ in the number of neutrons. The number of protons and electrons does not change. A simple example of isotopes is that of Hydrogen.
Within this element, there is the highest number of hydrogen atoms with one proton, no neutron and one electron;
second isotope of hydrogen is Deuterium with one proton, one neutron and one electron;
Least in concentration is the third kind of isotope called Tritium. Tritium has one proton, two neutrons and one electron.
With reference to the properties of sound (page 578), frequency of sound waves signifies the number of ______________ that pass a _________________ and is measured in ___________.
Ans: cycles, given point in a given time, Hertz (Hz)
Newborn babies can see the gray tones, are farsighted and often use only one eye at a time. True/false
Ans: True
Review ‘motion sickness’ and its reasons from page 587 in your textbook.
Ans: Motion sickness appears to be a sensory mismatch going to the brain. Our body position is detected by vestibular apparatus and then information is sent to the brain. Our vision messages have an important role to play in maintaining our balance.
Taking ship as an example; if you are in a cabin at the time of the storm, visual messages of us being stationary are sent to the brain. But when the ship is tossed around by the waves, the vestibular apparatus detects movements and sends those messages to the brain. When visual and vestibular messages mismatch, brain gets confused and the symptoms of this confusion are termed as “motion sickness”.
Warning signals of this condition are nausea, vomiting, rapid breathing, and profuse sweating. If the patient can get out of this situation, motion sickness goes away.
Read about five basic taste sensations. Specify which ions are involved in perceiving those taste sensations? Page 571
Ans: Five basic taste sensations are
a. Sweet: elicited by many organic substances such as sugars, saccharin, alcohol and some amino acids,
b. Sour: this taste is found in acids, and presence of hydrogen ions is important in producing sour taste,
c. Salty: is produced by metal ions such as sodium chloride (table salt).
d. Bitter: Mostly alkaloids such as quinine, nicotine, caffeine and morphine and in some non alkaloids substances like aspirin.
e. Umami: Taste of beef broth or tang of aging cheese is termed as umami. This taste was discovered by Japanese and is due to amino acids glutamate and aspartate.
What are the secretions of lacrimal glands and tarsal glands in the eye?
Lacrimal glands produce tears which are essential for keeping the eyes moist and clean. Tarsal glands or Meibomian glands are located near the eyelashes. They are modified sebaceous glands; they lubricate the eyelid and the eye and prevent the eyelids from sticking together.
In the human ear, cochlea helps in ____________ and vestibule functions in maintaining ________________.
Hearing, balance.
Amount of light entering is eye is controlled by _______. Iris/cornea/sclera/retina?
Iris
Which two types of cells in retina help us to see in dim light and bright light, respectively?
Rods in retina help us to see in dim light and cone cell in the same layer help in color differentiation or daylight vision.
What are the specific effects of sympathetic nervous system on the heart rate, blood pressure, gastrointestinal peristaltic rate and blood sugar?
Sympathetic nervous system raises rate and force of the heart beat; constricts the blood vessels and causes a rise in the blood pressure; decreases the activity of digestive glands and muscles and reduces the peristaltic rate and raises blood glucose levels.
What are the target organs (effectors) of somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system?
Effectors
Somatic nervous systems are skeletal muscles
Autonomic nervous systems are cardiac muscles, smooth muscles and glands.
. Which set of nerves in our brain carry parasympathetic information? Which one out of these carries out most of (90% of) parasympathetic functions?
Cranial nerves III (oculomotor), VII (facial), IX (glossopharyngeal) and X (Vagus) carry parasympathetic information. Out of these, Vagus nerve carries most of the parasympathetic information.
Compare the functions of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
Role of the Parasympathetic Division
• Promotes maintenance activities and conserves body energy
• Its activity is illustrated in a person who relaxes, reading, after a meal
* Blood pressure, heart rate, and respiratory rates are low
* Gastrointestinal tract activity is high
Pupils are constricted and lenses are accommodated for close vision

Role of the Sympathetic Division
• Mobilizes the body during activity; is the “fight-or-flight” system
• Promotes adjustments during exercise, or when threatened
* Blood flow is shunted to skeletal muscles and heart
* Bronchioles dilate
* Liver releases glucose
What is the composition of cerebrospinal fluid?
Cerebrospinal fluid is located inside and outside the brain and spinal cord.

CSF is a “watery broth” similar in composition to the blood plasma, from which it is formed. However, it contains fewer proteins than plasma and its ion concentrations are different. For example, CSF contains more sodium and chloride ions and hydrogen ions than in the blood but has less of calcium and potassium ions.

There are evidences that CSF also carries some chemical signals (such as hormones, sleep and appetite inducing chemicals) from one part of the brain to another.
Body’s thermostat lies in the _______________ in brain.
Hypothalamus
What are the specific roles of Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area in cerebrum?
Ans: Scientists have learned about the brain regions involved in language ability mostly through the study of aphasias – speech and language disorders. Broca’s aphasia is due to damage to Broca’s area, located in the left inferior frontal gyrus and surrounding areas. This is our motor speech center. People with damage to Broca’s area understand what is said to them but have difficulty responding.

Wernicke’s area is located in the superior temporal gyrus of the left hemisphere. In case of Wernicke’s aphasia, language comprehension is destroyed. People with Wernicke’s aphasia speak easily but use both real and made up words tossed together like a mixed salad. They cannot understand either spoken or written language. From this information, neurologists have concluded that the sense of hearing and vision has to be projected to Wernicke’s area. Information from Wernicke’s is sent to Broca’s area so that a person can respond.
Longitudinal fissure divides the ___________ into two __________ _________.
cerebrum, cerebral hemispheres (right and left).
At what stage does the potassium efflux take place during nerve impulse conduction?
Potassium efflux takes place during depolarization.
What kind of nerve impulse conduction is found in a myelinated and a non myelinated neuron?
Nerve impulse conduction in a myelinated neuron is called “Saltatory conduction” and in case of a non-myelinated neuron, this is called “Continuous conduction.”
Define an association neuron (also called an interneuron).
An association neuron or an interneuron is only found in the CNS (brain and spinal cord). This type of neuron can form a synaptic junction with a sensory neuron and a motor neuron at the same time. This helps the association neuron to take the sensory message and then decide as to what kind of motor message needs to be sent to the body.
Learn five characteristics of neurons.
a. these are the longest cells of the body.
b. Neurons lack a centriole, therefore, cannot divide any further once they are formed at the beginning of development.
c. Neurons conduct nerve impulses from the sense organs to the CNS and take motor messages from CNS to the body.
d. Neurons lack the power of regeneration; therefore, transplanting this tissue is not possible yet.
e. Signs of aging are shown earlier in this tissue compared to other tissues in the body.
What is the other name for sheath of Schwann in myelinated neurons?
This is also called the neurilemma.
What are the roles of frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobes in cerebrum?
Frontal Lobe: This lobe sends most of motor messages to the body. Association neurons of frontal lobe also control the motor neurons of the spinal cord. Speech area called Broca’s area is also found in the frontal lobe.
Parietal lobe: Receives most of the sensory information from the body.
Temporal Lobe: Contains the auditory centers for receiving and analyzing the sense of hearing.
Occipital lobe: is the primary area responsible for vision.
What structures are included in brain stem?
Brain stem involves midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata.
Arbor vitae or the ‘tree of life’ is found in __________ in brain and is composed of _________ matter.
cerebellum, white
What are astrocytes, ependymal cells, oligodendrocytes and microglia? Write down their functions
Astrocytes: Maintain blood brain barrier and pH of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
Ependymal cells: Help secrete and circulate CSF.
Oligodendrocytes: Help synthesize myelin (lipoprotein) for insulation in axons.
Microglia: Phagocytic in nature, help in defense.
What is the reason of Rigor mortis?
Rigor Mortis: A gradual and temporary state of muscle contraction after death. This condition illustrates the fact that cross bridge detachment involves ATP. Most muscles begin to stiffen 3-4 hours after death. Peak rigidity after 12 hours, and then it begins to disappear after 48-60 hours.

Just after death, body cells stop making ATP. But it’s still consumed by the muscle cells. Calcium influx starts from SR towards the cytoplasm. Actin and myosin become irreversibly cross linked (ATP in required to break the cross bridges).
Both single and multi unit smooth muscles are controlled by ANS and hormones. True/False.
True
An individual muscle cell is surrounded by ________. Epimysium/perimysium/endomysium?
Endoymysium
What is the reason of striations in the skeletal muscle cells?
Striations on the skeletal muscles and faint striations on the cardiac muscles signify a repeated series of dark and light bands which are evident along the length of each myofibril.
In an intact muscle fiber, the dark and light bands are nearly perfectly aligned, giving the muscle striated appearance.
What is the role of myoglobin in muscles?
Myoglobin carries oxygen for the muscle fibers. It is found in the cell cytoplasm (sarcoplasm) of the muscles.
Which muscle has the greatest capacity to regenerate?
Skeletal/Smooth/Cardiac?
Smooth muscles
What does tropomyosin do at the time contraction in the muscle fibers?
Tropomyosin is a rod shaped regulatory protein found in thin (actin) filaments of muscle fibers. In a relaxed state, tropomyosin covers the myosin binding sites on actin filament. This way myosin heads cannot bind to actin. Tropomyosin is also held in place by another regulatory protein called Troponin.

At the beginning of the contraction, calcium is released from sarcoplasmic reticulum. Troponin has strong affinity for Calcium. Therefore, as soon as calcium is released in the cytoplasm, a troponin-Ca+2 complex is formed. Due to this, rod shaped tropomyosin changes its conformation and is no longer hiding/masking the myosin binding sites on actin.

This facilitates the start of cross bridge formation. Myosin heads can now join with actin molecules.
Pronation
“Turning forward”
Forearm rotates medially
Palm faces posteriorly or inferiorly

A pro basketball player pronates his arm to dribble the ball.
Supination
“Turning backward”
Rotating the forearm laterally so that the palm faces anteriorly or superiorly.

When the hand is supinated, radius and ulna are parallel.
Abduction
“Moving away”
Moving the limbs away from the midline of the body.
Raising the arm or thigh laterally,
Spreading the fingers or toes apart.
Adduction
“Moving toward”
Moving the limbs towards the body’s midline
In case of the digits, towards the midline of the hand or foot.
Opposite of abduction
Dorsiflexion
When we lift the foot up, (keeping the heel on the ground) so that its superior surface approaches the shin.
Plantar flexion
Like a ballet dancer, when we point the toes, this is termed as plantar flexion.
Synovial fluid: Write down four functions of this fluid in our body.
a. Occupies all free spaces within the joint capsule
b. Viscous and egg white consistency
c. Contains hyaluronic acid secreted by the synovial membrane.
d. Warms up and things during joint activity.
e. Facilitates “weeping lubrication” during joint movement.
f. Reduces friction between the cartilage in the joints.
g. Contains phagocytic cells – helps in defense.
Synarthrotic joints allow/do not allow movement.
Do not allow movement.
Explain flexion, extension and hyperextension of the neck.
Flexion: Bending movement, usually along the sagittal plane which decreases the angle of the joint and bring the articulating bones together.
Extension: Reverse of flextion, along the sagittal plane, increases the angle of the joint and straightens the flexed limb or body part.
Hyperextension: Excessive extension of the joint, such as extending the head or the hip.
Which of these is a cartilaginous joint(s) ?Gomphosis/synchondrosis/syndesmosis/symphysis
There are two answers here, synchondrosis and symphysis.
A fibrocartilaginous joint which allows slight movement is a _______. Gomphosis/synchondrosis/syndesmosis/symphysis
Symphysis
A fibrous joint also called a ‘peg in a socket’ is a ________.
Gomphosis/synchondrosis/syndesmosis.
Gomphosis
A structural unit of a compact bone is called an _________________.
Osteon.
What is the name of the process which involves the ossification of the ends of a long bone?
During endochondral ossification, the epiphysis (ends of the long bones) development takes place through secondary ossification centers.
Define Wolff’s law.
a. A bone grows or remodels in response to the demands placed on it.
b. Handedness (being right or left handed) results in the stronger bones of the dominant limb.
c. Curved bones are the thickest where they are likely to buckle.
d. Trabeculae of spongy bones are formed along the lines of compression.
e. Large projections in the bones occur where heavy muscles attach.
f. Wolff’s law also explains the featureless bones of the fetus and atrophied bones of the bedridden patients – stimulations in which bones are not stressed.
Explain the functions of the following cells in the body? Ostoblasts, Osteoclasts, Osteocytes and Osteogenic cells. Which hormones are responsible for osteoclast and osteocyte activities respectively?
Ostoblasts: matrix synthesizing cells responsible for bone growth.
Osteoclasts: Bone resorbing cells.
Osteocytes: Mature cell that maintains the bone matrix
Osteogenic cells: stem cells that help in repair and regeneration.

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) from parathyroid glands increases the level of blood calcium whenever it becomes too low. Osteoclasts are stimulated by paryathyroid hormone and help in mobilizing the calcium towards blood.

Calcitonin hormone decreases the blood calcium level. If blood calcium level reaches above normal, thyroid gland secretes calitonin which stimulates the osteoblasts and osteocytes activity. Extra calcium from blood is stored in the bones.
What would you find in the yellow bone marrow?
A yellow bone marrow contains fat.
Why do you think hypodermis acts as the shock absorber?
Hypodermis is the layer below dermis in our skin. This layers stores fats in the form of adipose tissue. This tissue helps in preventing injuring by acting as a shock absorber.
What is the specific name of the wax producing glands in the ears?
Wax producing glands of the ear canal (external auditory meatus) are called Ceruminous glands.
Identify the muscle attached to the hair follicles.
This muscle is one of the smallest muscles of the body and is called Arrector Pili (“raiser of the hair”).
Write down five characteristics of dermis which make this different from epidermis in the skin.
Epidermis
1. Outermost protective layer of skin
2. Composed of epithelial tissue
3. Shows four or five strata depending on its location.
4. Absence of blood vessels.
5. Nutrients and gaseous supply reaches epidermis through diffusion from underlying layers

Dermis
1. Lies below epidermis
2. Composed of connective tissue
3. Shows two major regions, papillary and reticular regions.
4. Makes the bulk of the skin, and is a tough and leathery layer.
5. Has extensive blood supply
What is the reason of baldness in males?
The most common type, male pattern baldness, is a genetically determined, sex influenced condition. It is thought to be caused by a delayed action gene that “switches on” in adulthood and change the response of hair follicles to DHT (dihydroxytestosterone) a metabolite of testosterone. As a result, follicular growth cycles become too short and hair may never even emerge before shedding. Or the ones that emerge are fine vellus hair (“peach fuzz”).
Write down five layers of skin epidermis starting from outside to inside. Which areas in the body have five layers instead of four layers of epidermis?
Skin epidermis shows five layers in areas of thick skin (palms, fingertips and soles). These are listed as follows from outside to inside:
Stratum corneum, Stratum lucidum, Stratum granulosum, Stratum spinosum, Stratum basale
(mnemonic – Can Lucy Give Some Beer?)
In rest of the areas of the body, skin epidermis lacks stratum lucidum and therefore, there are only four layers in it.
At what stage of the cell cycle, DNA replication takes place?
Normally the life cycle of a cell involves G1, S, G2 and mitosis. The DNA replication takes place in S phase. Without a proper S phase, there can be no correct mitotic phase.
Write five important features of mitochondria.
Mitochondria are the tiny power houses in a cell. They have the following characteristics:
a. They are double membranous sacs (Lozenge shaped)
b. They have their own DNA material.
c. They can multiply within the cell (by a process called ‘fission’).
d. They contain all the enzymes required for the aerobic metabolism and therefore, produce a large amount of ATP molecules for the cell.
e. Mitochondria are also considered to be similar to a kind of bacteria that invaded the ancient ancestors of plant and animal cells and then this symbiotic relationship actually helped to cells to thrive and undergo complicated metabolic reactions.
Explain the term passive transport and compare this with active transport.
Passive transport
This type of transport involves the movement of molecules or ions across the cell membrane without the involvement of energy or ATP.

Examples: simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, filtration and osmosis

Passive transport only occurs along the concentration gradient. That means molecules travel from the area of their higher concentration towards their lower concentration.

Active transport
When transportation of molecules or ions across the cell membrane involves ATP, this is termed as Active transport.

Examples: Primary & Secondary transport, vesicular transport, exo- and endocytosis.

Active transport takes the ions ‘uphill’ or against their concentration gradient.
Find out a true statement in the following:
a. There is only type of mRNA for each amino acid.
b. mRNA, rRNA and tRNA are needed for protein synthesis.
c. rRNA is always attached on rough ER.
d. If the base sequence of DNA is ATTGCGA, mRNA sequence will be UAATGGT.
b. mRNA, rRNA and tRNA are needed for protein synthesis.
What are effects of solutions of varying tonicities on living red blood cells?
Condition #1: RBC in a hypotonic solution: When the tonicity of the outside solution is less than that of RBC, water will start moving towards the inside of the cells resulting in swelling and eventual death by bursting of the cell.
Condition #2: RBC in a hypertonic solution: When the outside solution is more concentrated, the opposite will happen. RBC tend to lose their water, shrink and shrivel and later on die.
Condition #3: RBC in an Isotonic solution: RBC and all of our other living cells, stay healthy in a normal saline solution (0.9% NaCl) or in a 5% dextrose solution. When they are in either one of these solution, they neither gain nor lose their water. Therefore, we use these two solutions very frequently in medicine.
What organelle stores calcium in case of a muscle cell?
In a muscle cell, the sarcoplasmic reticulum stores calcium.
In the double helical structure of DNA molecule, what role does phosphate molecule play?
In this double helical structure of DNA, alternating sugar and phosphate components of each chain form the backbone or “uprights” of the ladder.
What does the following formula represent in terms of name of the compound, its molecular weight and its components? C6 H12 O6
This compound is glucose.

The formula shows that there six atoms of carbon, 12 of hydrogen and 6 of oxygen.

The molecular weight of this compound can be calculated by adding up the atomic weight of each atom.

The atomic weight of carbon is 12; Hydrogen = 1 and Oxygen = 16
12X6 = 72 (because there are 6 atoms of carbon)
1X12 =12 (12 atoms of hydrogen) &
16X6 = 96 (6 atoms of oxygen).

Sum of this will be 72+12+96 =180gms.
Is Blood a suspension, solution or a colloid?
Blood is a suspension.
Define an organic molecule and the term, ‘polypeptide’.
An organic molecule contains carbon and may also consist of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur with that. Carbon is always a part of the organic compounds.
Polypeptide: This is a long chain of amino acids. Each amino acid is combined with the next one through a bond called the peptide bone. Polypeptides are the backbones of proteins.
Which type of chemical reaction results in release of energy? (Exergonic or Endergonic)? And which one of these also results in breaking of bonds?
Exergonic reactions are the ones which result in release of energy. And they are the ones where the bonds are broken.
How do we store carbohydrates in our body?
We change any unused glucose into glycogen and store this in our liver and muscles.
Genetic information in DNA is coded by the _______________________.
Three base sequence in mRNA called a CODON.
What is the role of Iron, phosphorus, sodium and iodine in our body?
Iron: is a part of many metalloenzymes and hemoglobin.
Phosphorus: forms the bulk of the bones and is also a part of our nucleic acids.
Sodium: Most important cation in the blood, essential for muscle and nerve physiology.
Iodine: is a part of our thyroid hormones and is essential for physical growth of an individual.
What are the functions of nervous system in our body?
It’s a long acting control system of our body, it responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands.
Explain the term homeostasis.
A feedback system helps the body to maintain stability of its internal environment even though the outside environment keeps changing continuously.
Define an organ.
An organ is a discrete structure comprising of two or more types of tissues and all of these perform a common function. For example, stomach, pancreas or heart.
What’s the normal human body temperature in degree centigrade and in Fahrenheit?
Normal body temperature is 37°C or 98.4°F.
What do you understand by levels of body organization? Arrange different levels in their right sequence starting from atoms and molecules and all the way till an individual.
Anatomically and physiologically, every living organism shows different levels of body organization. They are inter-related and are important for the existence of the organisms. Starting from the lowest level, a right sequence is as below:
Chemical level, cellular level, tissue level, organ level, organ system level and finally organism or individual level.
What is a feedback system? Define a positive and a negative feedback system with the help of examples.
A feedback system helps the body to maintain stability of its internal environment even though the outside environment keeps changing continuously. The overall process is also termed as “Homeostasis.

Outer stimuli stimulate the receptor (tend to change our internal environment)
Takes the messages to the control center (Hypothalamus in many cases)
Control center sends the messages to the effectors
Change in the internal environment

Negative Feedback Control: When the temperature is very hot outside, our body temperature tends to rise. Body’s natural thermostat is stimulated by these changes and sends messages to the sweat glands. Evaporation of our sweat cools down the skin and brings the temperature back to normal.
In negative feedback, the change brought about by the control center always negates the stimulus.

Positive Feedback Control: There are few examples where the actual stimulus is enhanced or amplified in order to maintain the homeostasis. These are two: the process of blood clotting and childbirth.

During childbirth, labor pains initially start with the release of oxytocin hormone from hypothalamus. This causes the contractions of the uterine muscles. They in turn, cause the release of more oxytocin and enhance the process of labor pain and finally the whole process helps in childbirth