Anatomy&physiology Ii Final Exam-Dr M

Front 1

What are the two steps of focusing?

Back 1

We focus images on the retina by changing the shape of the lens to keep focal length constant. (accomodation)
Crystallins are responsible for the focusing power of the lens.

1. Light rays from a source are refracted when they reach the lens of the eye.
2. The rays are then focused onto a single point

Hint 1

Look at pg 575, fig 17-9.

Front 2

Vibration of tympanic membrane converts sound waves into...

Back 2

Mechanical movements

Hint 2

pg 587

Front 3

Parts and steps involved in gustation...(taste)

Back 3

Taste Receptors/Taste buds- Montitored by:
Facial nerve VII- on anterior 2/3 of tongue. Glossopharyngeal nerve IX- Posterior 1/3 of tongue including the circumvallate. Vagus Nerve X- scattered on surface of epiglottis. Then they synapse within the solitary nucleus of the medulla oblongata and then on to the thalamus and the primary sensory cortex.

Hint 3

pg 564

Front 4

Parts and steps involved in olfaction...(smell)

Back 4

When you inhale, the air swirls within your nasal cavity to the olfactory epehelium. When the axons leave it, 20 bundles penetrate the cribriform plate of the ethmoid to reach the olfactory bulbs or cerebrum (synapse). Then travel along the olf tract to the olf cortex, the hypothalamus and portions of the limbic system.
Olf-only one that reaches the cortex directly!

Hint 4

pg 563

Front 5

Parts and steps involved in photoreception...

Back 5

It begins when a photon strikes the retinal portion of rhodopsin molecule.
Step 1- Opsin is activated.
Step 2- Opsin Activates Transduin, which in turn activates phosphodiesterase
Step 3- Cyclic-GMP levels decline and gated sodium channels close.
Step 4- The dark current is reduced and the rate of neurotransmitter relase declines.

Hint 5

Pg 581

Front 6

Parts and steps involved in balance...

Back 6

balance: Equilibrium sensations are provided by receptors of the vestibular complex - hair cells, which provide information about the direction and strength of mechanical stimuli.• The vestibular receptors activate sensory neurons of the vestibular ganglia. The axons form the vestibular branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII), synapsing within the vestibular nuclei. • The reflexive motor commands issued by the vestibular nuclei are distributed to the motor nuclei for cranial nerves involved with eye, head, and neck movements

Hint 6

pg 589
balance:look at last paragraph-numbers1-4

Front 7

Parts and steps involved in hearing...

Back 7

The receptors of the cochlear duct provide a sense of hearing that enables us to detect the quietest whisper, yet remain functional in a noisy room.

•Step 1: Sound waves arrive at the tympanic membrane. The orientation of the canal provides some directional sensitivity.

• Step 2: Movement of the tympanic membrane causes displacement of the auditory ossicles. When the tympanic membrane vibrates, so do the malleus and, through their articulations, the incus and stapes. In this way, sound is amplified.
Step 3: Movement of the stapes at the oval window establishes pressure waves in the perilymph of the vestibular duct.
•Step 4: The pressure waves distort the basilar membrane on their way to the round window of the tympanic duct. The location of maximum distortion varies with the frequency of the sound. Information about frequency is translated into information about position along the basilar membrane.
•Step 5: Vibration of the basilar membrane causes vibration of hair cells against the tectorial membrane. This movement leads to the displacement of the stereocilia, which in turn opens ion channels in the hair cell membranes. The resulting inrush of ions depolarizes the hair cells, leading to the release of neurotransmitters and thus to the stimulation of sensory neurons. The number of hair cells responding in a given region of the organ of Corti provides information on the intensity of the sound.
•Step 6: Information about the region and intensity of stimulation is relayed to the CNS over the cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII). The sensory neurons are located in the spiral ganglion of the cochlea. From there, the information is carried by the cochlear branch of cranial nerve VIII to the cochlear nuclei of the medulla oblongata for subsequent distribution to other centers in the brain.

Hint 7

Figure 17-30
Pg 596

Front 8

Characteristics and functions of: hair cells

Back 8

They are the basic receptors of the inner ear,which provide information about the direction and strength of mechanical stimuli.
Hair cells do not actively move their kinocilium or stereocilia; instead external forces push these processes and distort the cell membrane.

Hint 8

pg 589

Front 9

Function of inner ear

Back 9

contains receptors in the saccule and utricle that provide sensations of gravity and linear acceleration.

Hint 9

pg 588

Front 10

Function of middle ear

Back 10

It communicates with the nasopharynx via the auditory (pharyngotympanic) tube.
•Vibration of the tympanic membrane converts arriving sound waves into mechanical movements.

Hint 10

pg 586

Front 11

Functions of the Outer Ear:

Back 11

collects the sound waves and transports them through the external acoustic meatus to the tympanic membrane.

Hint 11

pg 585

Front 12

Function and general characteristics of: endocrine system

Back 12

Releases chemical messengers into the body that affects its activities. Preserves homeostasis by coordinating and regulating the activities of other cells, tissues, organs and systems. Regulates growth and development.

It includes all the endocrine cells and tissues of the body that produce hormones or paracrine factors with effects beyond their tissues of origin.

Hint 12

pg 606

Front 13

definition and characteristics of: alarm phase

Back 13

"fight or flight"
An immediate response to stress occurs- Directed by sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system.

Characteristics-
1. increased mental alertness
2. increased energy consumption
3. mobilization of energy reserves (glycogen and lipids)4. changes in circulation: increased blood flow to skeletal muscles, decreased blood flow to the skin, kidneys, and digestive organs
5. drastic reduction in digestion and urine production
6. increased sweat gland secretion
7. increases in blood pressure, heart rate, and respiratory rate

Hint 13

pg 641

Front 14

Functions of the Outer Ear:

Back 14

collects the sound waves and transports them through the external acoustic meatus to the tympanic membrane.

Hint 14

pg 585

Front 15

Function and general characteristics of: endocrine system

Back 15

Releases chemical messengers into the body that affects its activities. Preserves homeostasis by coordinating and regulating the activities of other cells, tissues, organs and systems. Regulates growth and development.

It includes all the endocrine cells and tissues of the body that produce hormones or paracrine factors with effects beyond their tissues of origin.

Hint 15

pg 606

Front 16

definition and characteristics of: exhaustion phase

Back 16

Collapse of vital systems. May be caused by exhaustion of lipid reserves, failure of electrolyte balance, or inability to produce glucocortoroids.

Hint 16

pg 641

Front 17

definition and characteristics of: hormone

Back 17

Chemical messenger that is released in one tissue and transported in the bloodstream to alter the activities of specific cells in other tissues.
They circulate freely or are bound.

Hint 17

pg 604

Front 18

definition and characteristics of: alarm phase

Back 18

"fight or flight"
An immediate response to stress occurs- Directed by sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system.

Characteristics-
1. increased mental alertness
2. increased energy consumption
3. mobilization of energy reserves (glycogen and lipids)4. changes in circulation: increased blood flow to skeletal muscles, decreased blood flow to the skin, kidneys, and digestive organs
5. drastic reduction in digestion and urine production
6. increased sweat gland secretion
7. increases in blood pressure, heart rate, and respiratory rate

Hint 18

pg 641

Front 19

function of hormone: CT

Back 19

Gland: Thyroid

Decrease Ca2+ concentrations in the body fluids;
Increase Ca2+ deposition in the bone; important regulator of
Ca2+ concentrations in body fluids during childhood and
pregnancy

Hint 19

hormone list

Front 20

definition and characteristics of: exhaustion phase

Back 20

Collapse of vital systems. May be caused by exhaustion of lipid reserves, failure of electrolyte balance, or inability to produce glucocortoroids.

Hint 20

pg 641

Front 21

function of hormone: PTH (Parathyroid hormone)

Back 21

Gland: Parathyroid

Increase the Ca2+ concentrations in body fluids; Dissolve
Ca2+ concentration from bone; reduces calcium deposition in
the bone; reduces urinary excretion of Ca2+; stimulates
formation of calcitriol

Hint 21

hormone list

Front 22

definition and characteristics of: hormone

Back 22

Chemical messenger that is released in one tissue and transported in the bloodstream to alter the activities of specific cells in other tissues.
They circulate freely or are bound.

Hint 22

pg 604

Front 23

function of hormone: CT

Back 23

Gland: Thyroid

Decrease Ca2+ concentrations in the body fluids;
Increase Ca2+ deposition in the bone; important regulator of
Ca2+ concentrations in body fluids during childhood and
pregnancy

Hint 23

hormone list

Front 24

function of hormone: Glucocortoroids:
Coritsol, Cortisone, corticosterone

Back 24

Gland: Adrenal Cortex

Accelerate glucose synthesis and glycogen formation;
glucose-sparing effect;
anti-inflammatory effect;
release amino acids from skeletal muscles

Hint 24

hormone list

Front 25

function of hormone: epinephrin and norepinephrin

Back 25

Gland: Adrenal Medulla

Increase: blood glucose, blood glycerol, fatty acids,
heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate.

Hint 25

hormone list

Front 26

function of hormone: PTH (Parathyroid hormone)

Back 26

Gland: Parathyroid

Increase the Ca2+ concentrations in body fluids; Dissolve
Ca2+ concentration from bone; reduces calcium deposition in
the bone; reduces urinary excretion of Ca2+; stimulates
formation of calcitriol

Hint 26

hormone list

Front 27

function of hormone: Glucocortoroids:
Coritsol, Cortisone, corticosterone

Back 27

Gland: Adrenal Cortex

Accelerate glucose synthesis and glycogen formation;
glucose-sparing effect;
anti-inflammatory effect;
release amino acids from skeletal muscles

Hint 27

hormone list

Front 28

function of hormone: insulin

Back 28

Gland: Pancreas

Lowers blood glucose by—accelerating: glucose
uptake, glucose utilization and enhanced ATP
production; stimulating: glycogen formation, amino
acid absorption and protein synthesis, triglyceride
formation

Hint 28

hormone list

Front 29

function of hormone: epinephrin and norepinephrin

Back 29

Gland: Adrenal Medulla

Increase: blood glucose, blood glycerol, fatty acids,
heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate.

Hint 29

hormone list

Front 30

function of hormone: insulin

Back 30

Gland: Pancreas

Lowers blood glucose by—accelerating: glucose
uptake, glucose utilization and enhanced ATP
production; stimulating: glycogen formation, amino
acid absorption and protein synthesis, triglyceride
formation

Hint 30

hormone list

Front 31

Resistance Phase

Back 31

Long term metabolic adjustments.
If stress is longer than 2 hrs, its this.

secretions acheive:
1. mobilization of remaining lipid and protein reserves
2. conservation of glucose for neural tissues
3. elevation and stabilization of blood glucose concentrations
4. conservation of salts and water, and the loss of K+ and H+.

Hint 31

Pg 641

Front 32

function of Glucagon

Back 32

gland: pancreas

Increases blood glucose by—stimulating: glycogen
breakdown, triglyceride breakdown, glucose
production

Hint 32

Hormone List

Front 33

function of EPO (Erythropoietin)

Back 33

gland: Kidney

Stimulate the production of red blood cells

Hint 33

Hormone List

Front 34

function of Angiotenin II

Back 34

gland: Lungs

Stimulates: adrenal production of aldosterone,
pituitary to secrete antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Hint 34

Hormone List

Front 35

function of ANP (Atrial natriuretic peptide)

Back 35

gland: heart

Promotes the loss of Na+ and water; inhibits the
secretion of renin, antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and
Aldosterone; suppresses thirst; blocks actions of
angiotensin II or norepinephrine on arterioles

Hint 35

Hormone List

Front 36

function of ADH (Antidiuretic hormone)

Back 36

gland: posterior pituitary

Reduce water excretion, vasoconstricter (constrict peripheral
blood vessels); elevate blood volume and pressure

Hint 36

Hormone List

Front 37

function of T3 & T4

Back 37

gland: thyroid

Speed up the Kreb’s cycle; increase protein synthesis, oxygen
consumption, growth; stimulates development of the nervous
system.

Hint 37

Hormone List

Front 38

function of GH (growth hormone)

Back 38

gland: anterior pituitary

Stimulates cell growth, replication and protein
synthesis. Stimulates lipid mobilization and
catabolism.

Hint 38

Hormone List

Front 39

function of Testosterone

Back 39

gland: Testes

Production of functional sperm; maintain secretory
glands of male reproductive tract; stimulates: growth,
protein synthesis and muscle growth; determine male
secondary sexual characteristics; produce aggressive
behavioral responses

Hint 39

Hormone List

Front 40

function of Estrogen

Back 40

gland: ovaries

Steroid hormone: support the maturation of oocytes,
female secondary sexual characteristics, associated
behaviors; growth of uterine lining

Hint 40

Hormone List

Front 41

What are four patterns of hormonal interaction

Back 41

1. antagonistic (opposing) effects
2. synergistic (additive) effects
3. permissive effects, in which one hormone is necessary for another to produce its effect
4. integrative effects, in which hormones produce different, but complementary, results

Hint 41

Pg 638

Front 42

Stress response (GAS) - what is it for

Back 42

•Our bodies respond to a variety of stress-causing factors through the general adaptation syndrome (GAS), or stress response.

Hint 42

pg 640

Front 43

function of: cardiovascular system

Back 43

To transport materials to and from cells: oxygen and carbon dioxide, nutrients, hormones, immune system components, waste products

Hint 43

pg 651

Front 44

function of blood

Back 44

1. Transportation of dissolved gases, nutrients, hormones and metabolic wastes.
2. Regulation of PH and ion concentration of interstitial fluids
3. restriction of fluid losses at injury sites
4. defense against toxins and pathogens
5. stabilization of body temperature.

Hint 44

pg 651

Front 45

characteristics and functions of: immunoglobulins

Back 45

Also called antibodies.
Transport globulins (small molecules):
They attack foreign proteins and pathogens.

Hint 45

pg 654

Front 46

functions and characteristics of: RBC

Back 46

Most abundant blood cells (99%)
It gives whole blood its deep red color because of heme.
The heme binds and transports oxygen and carbon dioxide. Less than half blood volume. 1/3 of all human cells. lifespan is 120 days. Have no nucleus or organelles.

Hint 46

pg 655

Front 47

functions and characteristics of: WBC

Back 47

Also called leukocytes
Do not have hemoglobin
Have nuclei and other organelles
6000 to 9000 per microliter
Most WBCs in connective tissue and proper lymphatic system organs
They Defend against pathogens, Remove toxins and wastes, Attack abnormal cells

Hint 47

pg 666

Front 48

functions and characteristics of: Platelets

Back 48

Cell fragments involved in human clotting system.
Fx: Release important clotting chemicals
Temporarily patch damaged vessel walls
Actively contract tissue after clot formation.
150,000 to 500,000 per microliter
Circulates for 9–12 days
Are removed by spleen
2/3 are reserved for emergencies

Hint 48

pg 672

Front 49

Structure of hemoglobin

Back 49

4 globular protein subunits: α2β2 - alpha and beta chains
each with 1 molecule of heme
each heme contains 1 iron ion

Hint 49

pg 657

Front 50

Blood types - surface antigens and plasma antibodies of each type

Back 50

A:antigen A, Anti-B antibodies
B: antigen B, Anti-A antibodies
AB: Antigen A and B, no antibodies
O: Neither Antigen A or B, Anti-A and Anti-B antibodies

Hint 50

pg 663

Front 51

What are the two steps of focusing?

Back 51

We focus images on the retina by changing the shape of the lens to keep focal length constant. (accomodation)
Crystallins are responsible for the focusing power of the lens.

1. Light rays from a source are refracted when they reach the lens of the eye.
2. The rays are then focused onto a single point

Hint 51

Look at pg 575, fig 17-9.

Front 52

Vibration of tympanic membrane converts sound waves into...

Back 52

Mechanical movements

Hint 52

pg 587

Front 53

Parts and steps involved in gustation...(taste)

Back 53

Taste Receptors/Taste buds- Montitored by:
Facial nerve VII- on anterior 2/3 of tongue. Glossopharyngeal nerve IX- Posterior 1/3 of tongue including the circumvallate. Vagus Nerve X- scattered on surface of epiglottis. Then they synapse within the solitary nucleus of the medulla oblongata and then on to the thalamus and the primary sensory cortex.

Hint 53

pg 564

Front 54

Parts and steps involved in olfaction...(smell)

Back 54

When you inhale, the air swirls within your nasal cavity to the olfactory epehelium. When the axons leave it, 20 bundles penetrate the cribriform plate of the ethmoid to reach the olfactory bulbs or cerebrum (synapse). Then travel along the olf tract to the olf cortex, the hypothalamus and portions of the limbic system.
Olf-only one that reaches the cortex directly!

Hint 54

pg 563

Front 55

Parts and steps involved in photoreception...

Back 55

It begins when a photon strikes the retinal portion of rhodopsin molecule.
Step 1- Opsin is activated.
Step 2- Opsin Activates Transduin, which in turn activates phosphodiesterase
Step 3- Cyclic-GMP levels decline and gated sodium channels close.
Step 4- The dark current is reduced and the rate of neurotransmitter relase declines.

Hint 55

Pg 581

Front 56

Parts and steps involved in balance...

Back 56

balance: Equilibrium sensations are provided by receptors of the vestibular complex - hair cells, which provide information about the direction and strength of mechanical stimuli.• The vestibular receptors activate sensory neurons of the vestibular ganglia. The axons form the vestibular branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII), synapsing within the vestibular nuclei. • The reflexive motor commands issued by the vestibular nuclei are distributed to the motor nuclei for cranial nerves involved with eye, head, and neck movements

Hint 56

pg 589
balance:look at last paragraph-numbers1-4

Front 57

Parts and steps involved in hearing...

Back 57

The receptors of the cochlear duct provide a sense of hearing that enables us to detect the quietest whisper, yet remain functional in a noisy room.

•Step 1: Sound waves arrive at the tympanic membrane. The orientation of the canal provides some directional sensitivity.

• Step 2: Movement of the tympanic membrane causes displacement of the auditory ossicles. When the tympanic membrane vibrates, so do the malleus and, through their articulations, the incus and stapes. In this way, sound is amplified.
Step 3: Movement of the stapes at the oval window establishes pressure waves in the perilymph of the vestibular duct.
•Step 4: The pressure waves distort the basilar membrane on their way to the round window of the tympanic duct. The location of maximum distortion varies with the frequency of the sound. Information about frequency is translated into information about position along the basilar membrane.
•Step 5: Vibration of the basilar membrane causes vibration of hair cells against the tectorial membrane. This movement leads to the displacement of the stereocilia, which in turn opens ion channels in the hair cell membranes. The resulting inrush of ions depolarizes the hair cells, leading to the release of neurotransmitters and thus to the stimulation of sensory neurons. The number of hair cells responding in a given region of the organ of Corti provides information on the intensity of the sound.
•Step 6: Information about the region and intensity of stimulation is relayed to the CNS over the cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII). The sensory neurons are located in the spiral ganglion of the cochlea. From there, the information is carried by the cochlear branch of cranial nerve VIII to the cochlear nuclei of the medulla oblongata for subsequent distribution to other centers in the brain.

Hint 57

Figure 17-30
Pg 596

Front 58

Characteristics and functions of: hair cells

Back 58

They are the basic receptors of the inner ear,which provide information about the direction and strength of mechanical stimuli.
Hair cells do not actively move their kinocilium or stereocilia; instead external forces push these processes and distort the cell membrane.

Hint 58

pg 589

Front 59

Function of inner ear

Back 59

contains receptors in the saccule and utricle that provide sensations of gravity and linear acceleration.

Hint 59

pg 588

Front 60

Function of middle ear

Back 60

It communicates with the nasopharynx via the auditory (pharyngotympanic) tube.
•Vibration of the tympanic membrane converts arriving sound waves into mechanical movements.

Hint 60

pg 586

Front 61

Passage of blood through the heart

Back 61

Superior and inferior vena cava carry oxygen poor blood to the right atrium.
Right atrium sends blood through the atriventricular or tricuspid valve to the right ventricle.
Right ventricle sends blood through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary trunk that divide into the pulmonary arteries to carry blood to the lungs.
Four pulmonary veins carry oxygen rich blood to the left atrium.
Left atrium sends blood through the atrioventricular valve or bicuspid valve to the left ventricle.
Left ventricle sends blood through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta and out to the body.

Hint 61

slides

Front 62

Definition of pulmonary curcuit

Back 62

blood vessels between the pulmonary semilunar valve of the right ventricle and the entrance to the left atrium; the blood flow through the lungs.

Hint 62

dictionary

Front 63

Definition of conducting system

Back 63

network of specialized cardiac muscle cells that initiates and distributes electrical impulses.

Hint 63

pg 969

Front 64

Defintion of Systole

Back 64

contraction; the chamber contracts and pushes blood into the adjacent chamber or into an arterial trunk.

Hint 64

pg 703

Front 65

definition of diastole

Back 65

relaxation; during it, the chamber fills with blood and prepares for the next cadiac cycle.

Hint 65

pg 703

Front 66

Cardiac muscles have a long refractory period so...

Back 66

so rapid stimulation produces twitches rather thantetanic contractions.
long refractory period prevents summation and tetany

Hint 66

slides

Front 67

Path of conducting system...

Back 67

SA node-> Internodal pathways-> AV node-> av bundle -> bundle branches->purkinje fibers

Hint 67

pg 696

Front 68

The basic heart rate is established by….. but can be modified by……

Back 68

pacemaker cells in the av node; autonomic nervous system/hormones

Hint 68

greg notes

Front 69

Cardiac output is affected by several factors, what are they

Back 69

heart rate or stoke volume.

Hint 69

look at fig 20-20. pg 708

Front 70

Know characteristics of: 3 layers of heart wall

Back 70

epicardium: visceral pericardium that covers the outer surface of the heart.
myocardium:muscular wall of the heart, forms both atria and ventricles; contains blood vessels, nerves and muscle tissue.
endocardium: simple squamous epethelium that is continuous with the endothelium of the attached great vessels. Cover the inner surfaces of heart.

Hint 70

pg 684

Front 71

connective tissues of the heart

Back 71

includes large numbers of collagesn and elastic fibers. It provides physocal support for the cardiac muscle fibers, elp distribute forrces of contraction, add strength and prevent overexpansion of heart, porvide elasticity..

Hint 71

pg 692

Front 72

cardiac cycle phases

Back 72

1 atrial systole begins.
2. atrial systole ends; atrial diastole begins.
3. ventricular systole-first phase
4. ventricular systole-2nd phase
5. ventricular diastole-early
6. ventricular diastole-late

Hint 72

look at pg 704 fig 20-16

Front 73

All chemical and gaseous exchange……

Back 73

between the blood and interstitial fluid takes place across the capillary walls

Hint 73

michaela notes

Front 74

Arteries carry blood where

Back 74

away from the heart towards capillaries

Hint 74

pg 720

Front 75

Veins carry blood where

Back 75

towards the heart

Hint 75

pg 720

Front 76

differences between veins and arteries

Back 76

1. arteries dont have valves, veins do
2. arteries contrict, veins barely do.
3. artery walls are thicker than veins
4. arteies are smaller in diameter.
5 arteries retain their shape, veins colapse.

Hint 76

pg 721

Front 77

Which system is a high pressure system

Back 77

arteries

Hint 77

notes

Front 78

When net filtration pressure is positive what happens?

Back 78

fluid moves into the interstitial fluid - filtration

Hint 78

pg 736

Front 79

When net filtration pressure is negative what happens?

Back 79

fluid moves out of the interstitial fluid an into capillaries

Hint 79

pg 736

Front 80

Homeostatic mechanisms regulate cardiovascular activity so that…..

Back 80

to ensure that the tissue perfusion, or blood flow through the tissues, meets the demand fo oxygen and nutrients

Hint 80

pg 737

Front 81

What three organs have special circulation?

Back 81

brain, heart and lungs

Hint 81

pg 747

Front 82

Explain how the body returns to homeostasis when blood pressure is too high or too low?

Back 82

The baroreceptors respone

Hint 82

pg 740 fig 21-14

Front 83

Define: vasoconstriction

Back 83

a reduction in the diameter of the arterioles due to the contraction of smooth muscles in the tunica media

Hint 83

dictionary

Front 84

define vasodilation

Back 84

an increase in the diameter of the arterioles due to the relaxation of smooth muscles in the tunica media.

Hint 84

dictionary

Front 85

Characteristics of: compensated stage

Back 85

stage1- homeostatic adjustments can cope with the situation; blood flow is reduced but within tolerable limits.

Hint 85

notes

Front 86

Characteristics of: progressive stage

Back 86

stage2- blood flow declined by 25% or more, homeostatic mechanisms cannot cope, blood pressure low, venus return is reduced cardiac output is inadequate.

Hint 86

notes

Front 87

Characteristics of: irreversible stage

Back 87

stage 3- conditions in the heart, liver, kidneys, and CNS are deteriorating, death will occur even with medical treatment

Hint 87

notes

Front 88

age-related changes in - blood

Back 88

decreased hematocrit, constriction or blockage of peripheral veins, pooling of blood in the veins of the legs because valves dont work

Hint 88

pg 770

Front 89

age-related changes in - heart

Back 89

reduction in maximum cardiac output, changes in actiities of nodal and conducting cells, reduction in elasticity of cardiac skeleton, progressive atheroclerosis, replacement of damaged cardiac muscle cells by scar tissue

Hint 89

pg 770

Front 90

age-related changes in - blood vessels

Back 90

the inelastic walls of arteries become less tolerant of sudden pressure increases, which can lead to an aneurism; calcium salts can be deposited on weakened vascular walls, thrombi can form at atherolsclerosis plaques.

Hint 90

pg 770

Front 91

Three functions of the lymphatic system

Back 91

1. production , maintenence and distribution of lymphocytes that provide defense against infection
2. helps maintain blood volume
3. helps elmiminate local variations in the composition of interstitial fluid.

Hint 91

pg 777

Front 92

Three goals of inflammation

Back 92

1. Temporary repair and barrier against pathogens
2. Retards spread of pathogens into surrounding areas
3. Mobilization of local and systemic defenses:
and facilitation of repairs (regeneration)

Hint 92

slides

Front 93

Four properties of immunity

Back 93

Specificity; Versatility; Memory; Tolerance

Hint 93

slides

Front 94

Antibody structure - what kind of chains

Back 94

2 parallel pairs of polypeptide chains
1 pair of heavy chains and 1 pair of light chains

Hint 94

slides

Front 95

Antibody structure - what kind of segments

Back 95

Each chain contains: constant segments and variable segments

Hint 95

slides

Front 96

T cell activation (who does what, and in what order);

Back 96

fig 22-19

Hint 96

pg 804

Front 97

B cell sensitization and activation (who does what, and in what order)

Back 97

fig 22-20

Hint 97

pg 805

Front 98

Function of: lymph nodes

Back 98

A filter: purifies lymph before return to venous circulation
Removes: debris; pathogens; 99% of antigens

Hint 98

slides

Front 99

function of interleukins

Back 99

assist in the coordination of cell-mediated nd antibody-mediated immunities

Hint 99

dictionary

Front 100

function of interferons

Back 100

Proteins (cytokines) released by activated lymphocytes and macrophages
Trigger production of antiviral proteins in normal cells
Antiviral proteins do not kill viruses, block replication in cell

Hint 100

slides

Front 101

define nonspecific defense

Back 101

Always work the same way
Against any type of invading agent

Hint 101

slide

Front 102

define specific defense

Back 102

Protect against specific pathogens
Depend on activities of lymphocytes
Specific resistance (immunity):
develops after exposure to environmental hazards

Hint 102

slide

Front 103

define cell-mediated immunity

Back 103

involves close physical contact between activated Tc cells and foreign, abnormal or infected cells

Hint 103

slide

Front 104

define antibody-mediated immunity

Back 104

involves the production of specific antibodies by plasma cells derived from activated B cells

Hint 104

slide

Front 105

Functions of: respiratory system

Back 105

1. provide an extensive surface area for gas exchange b/w air and circulating blood
2. moving air to and from the exchange surfaces of the lungs along the respiratory tract
3. protect respiratory surfaces from dehydration
4. producing sounds involved in speaking
5. facilitating the detection of olfactory stimuli

Hint 105

pg 826

Front 106

function of hemoglobin

Back 106

Gas Pickup and Delivery
oxygen transport

Hint 106

slides

Front 107

nose and nasal cavity do what to incoming air?

Back 107

Warm and humidify inhaled air for arrival at lower respiratory organ

Hint 107

slides

Front 108

What happens during swallowing (what does the body do to prevent food going into the trachea?)

Back 108

the larynx is elevated and the epiglottis folds back over the glottis, preventing entry of food into the trachea.

Hint 108

slide

Front 109

Passage of air through the respiratory system

Back 109

external nares -nasal cavity  pharynx- larynx -trachea -primary bronchi - secondary bronchi- tertiary bronchi -bronchiole - terminal bronchiole - respiratory bronchiole -alveolar ducts- alveolar sacs ->alveoli

Hint 109

slides

Front 110

Three steps of external respiration

Back 110

1. pulmonary ventilation-breathing
2.gas diffusion across membranes and capillaries
3. transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide between alvolar capillariesand capillary beds in other tissues

Hint 110

notes

Front 111

One step of internal respiration

Back 111

exhange of dissolved gases between the blood and the intertitial fluid.

Hint 111

slide

Front 112

When thoracic cavity volume increases….

Back 112

the pressure inside the lungs is lowered and air enters the lungs

Hint 112

slide

Front 113

When thoracic cavity volume decreases….;

Back 113

the pressure inside the lungs increases and air is forced out of the lungs

Hint 113

slide

Front 114

Five reasons why gas exchange at respiratory membrane is efficient

Back 114

1. distances involves in gas exchange are small
2. the total surface area is large
3. the gases are lipids
4. the difference in partial pressure across the respiratory membrane are substantial
5. membranes dont pose a barrier to the movement of o2 and co2

Hint 114

pg 841

Front 115

Homeostatic mechanisms involve……

Back 115

autoregulation, neural mechanisms, and endocrine mechanisms

Hint 115

notes

Front 116

definition of internal respiration

Back 116

the diffusion of gases between interstitial fluid and cytoplasm

Hint 116

dictionary

Front 117

definition of external respiration

Back 117

the diffusion of gases between the alveolar air and the alveolar capillaries and between the systematic capillaries and peripheral tissues

Hint 117

dictionary

Front 118

Two things required by metabolic reactions

Back 118

oxygena and organic molecules

Hint 118

notes

Front 119

The digestive tract consists of?

Back 119

oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine nad large intestine

Hint 119

notes

Front 120

Four types of teeth – what they do;

Back 120

incisors- clipping and cutting
cuspids-(canines) tearing and slashing
bicuspids(premolars)- crushing mashing and grinding
molars- used for crushing and grinding

Hint 120

notes

Front 121

characteristics of three gastric phases;

Back 121

cephalic- prepares the stomach to recieve the material. see, smell, tast, think about food.
gastric- arrival of food to stomach. has three machanisms-neural response, hormonal and local. may last several hours
intestinal phase- controls the rate of gastric emptying. neural and hormonal response.

Hint 121

pg 895

Front 122

Where does most of the absorption occur

Back 122

small intestine

Hint 122

notes

Front 123

Large intestine reabsorbs what?

Back 123

water, bile salts, vitamins, organic wastes, urobilinogen, and toxins

Hint 123

pg 913

Front 124

Digestive system breaks down the physical structure…

Back 124

of food

Hint 124

duhhh

Front 125

define peristalsis

Back 125

a wave of smooth muscle contractions that propel material along the axis of a tube such as the digestive tract

Hint 125

dictionary

Front 126

Functions of: saliva

Back 126

Lubricating the mouth
Moistening and lubricating materials in the mouth
Dissolving chemicals that:
stimulate taste buds; provide sensory information
4. Initiate digestion of:
complex carbohydrates by enzyme salivary amylase (ptyalin or alpha-amylase)
lipids by enzyme lingual lipase

Hint 126

slides

Front 127

function of stomach pH of 1.5-2.0

Back 127

kills most of microorganisms ingested with foods, denatures proteins, break down plant cells walls, necesarry for activatton and function of pepsin

Hint 127

notes

Front 128

Cells need…..;

Back 128

energy

Hint 128

notes

Front 129

A lot of energy is released as……;

Back 129

heat

Hint 129

notes

Front 130

Energy yield of - glycolysis

Back 130

2 ATP

Hint 130

fig 25-6
pg 939

Front 131

energy yeild of TCA

Back 131

2 ATP

Hint 131

pg 940

Front 132

energy yeild of ETS

Back 132

28 ETS

Hint 132

pg 940

Front 133

Which lipoprotein is good cholesterol?;

Back 133

HDL

Hint 133

notes

Front 134

Which lipoprotein is bad cholesterol?

Back 134

LDL

Hint 134

notes

Front 135

Three factors why protein catabolism is an impractical source of for quick energy

Back 135

1. proteins are more difficult to break apart than are complex carbohydrates or lipids
2. one of the by-products, ammonium ions, is toxic to cells
3. proteins form the most important structural and functional components of any cell.

Hint 135

notes

Front 136

Mechanisms to increase heat loss

Back 136

increased perspiration, increased respiration, peripheral vasodilation

Hint 136

notes

Front 137

mechanisms to promote heat gain

Back 137

decreased blood flow to dermis, shivering thermogenesis, nonshivering thermogenesis.

Hint 137

notes

Front 138

definition of: catabolism

Back 138

the breakdown of complex oraganic molecules into simpler components, accompanied by the release of energy.

Hint 138

dictionary

Front 139

definition of: anabolism

Back 139

the synthess of complex organic compounds from simpler precursors

Hint 139

dictionary

Front 140

Matching on: five metabolic components and their characteristics

Back 140

liver, adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, neural tissue and peripheral tissue

Hint 140

notes. more to it

Front 141

definition and characteristics of: absorptive state

Back 141

Is the period following a meal:
when nutrient absorption is under way

Hint 141

slide

Front 142

definition and characteristics of: postabsorptive state

Back 142

Is the period when nutrient absorption is not under way
Body relies on internal energy reserves for energy demands

Hint 142

slide

Front 143

Can you recognize a picture of the following metabolic pathways: glycolysis

Back 143

figure 25-3

Hint 143

pg 933

Front 144

Can you recognize a picture of the following metabolic pathways: krebs cycle

Back 144

figuure 25-4

Hint 144

pg 935

Front 145

Can you recognize a picture of the following metabolic pathways: ETS

Back 145

figure 25-5

Hint 145

pg 937

Front 146

functions of the urinary system

Back 146

excretion, elimination and homeostatic regulation, regulate blood volume and blood pressure, regulate plasma concentrations, help stabilize blood Ph, conserve valuable nutrients

Hint 146

notes

Front 147

fx: countercurrent multiplication

Back 147

exchange that occurs between thin descending loop and thick ascending loop, exchange of fluids in opposite direction,

Hint 147

notes

Front 148

definition and function of: kidney

Back 148

A component of the uriniary system,an organ functioning in the regulation of plasma composition including excretion of wastes and maintenance of normal fluid and electrolyte balances
detoxifies poisons.

Hint 148

definition

Front 149

What the nephrons are responsible for?;

Back 149

functional unit of the kidney. site where urine production begins

Hint 149

slide

Front 150

Goal of urine production

Back 150

: is to maintain homeostasis
by regulating volume and composition of blood
including excretion of metabolic waste produc

Hint 150

slide

Front 151

energy yeild of TCA

Back 151

2 ATP

Hint 151

pg 940

Front 152

energy yeild of ETS

Back 152

28 ETS

Hint 152

pg 940

Front 153

Which lipoprotein is good cholesterol?;

Back 153

HDL

Hint 153

notes

Front 154

Which lipoprotein is bad cholesterol?

Back 154

LDL

Hint 154

notes

Front 155

Three factors why protein catabolism is an impractical source of for quick energy

Back 155

1. proteins are more difficult to break apart than are complex carbohydrates or lipids
2. one of the by-products, ammonium ions, is toxic to cells
3. proteins form the most important structural and functional components of any cell.

Hint 155

notes

Front 156

Mechanisms to increase heat loss

Back 156

increased perspiration, increased respiration, peripheral vasodilation

Hint 156

notes

Front 157

mechanisms to promote heat gain

Back 157

decreased blood flow to dermis, shivering thermogenesis, nonshivering thermogenesis.

Hint 157

notes

Front 158

definition of: catabolism

Back 158

the breakdown of complex oraganic molecules into simpler components, accompanied by the release of energy.

Hint 158

dictionary

Front 159

definition of: anabolism

Back 159

the synthess of complex organic compounds from simpler precursors

Hint 159

dictionary

Front 160

Matching on: five metabolic components and their characteristics

Back 160

liver, adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, neural tissue and peripheral tissue

Hint 160

notes. more to it

Front 161

Know: Maintaining the normal fluid balance involves

Back 161

regultating the content and distribution of body water in the ECF and the ICF

Hint 161

notes

Front 162

Four basic principles of fluid and electrolyte regulation;

Back 162

look up in notes

Hint 162

too much to type

Front 163

Two reasons why electrolyte balance is important

Back 163

total electrolyte concentrations diectly affect water balance,
the concentration of individual electrolytes can effect cell function

Hint 163

notes

Front 164

Define: fluid balance

Back 164

when the amount of water you gain each day is equal to the amount you lose in the enviroment.

Hint 164

notes

Front 165

Summary of Renal Function p. 980-982

Back 165

look it up

Hint 165

pg 980

Front 166

Concentration of the components of the urine depends on what?;

Back 166

the osmotic movement of water across the walls of the tubules and collecting ducts

Hint 166

notes

Front 167

Urine volume and osmolarity are regulated…;

Back 167

through the control of water reabsorption

Hint 167

notes

Front 168

Five functions of PCT;

Back 168

reabsorption of organic nutrients, active reabsoption of ions, reabsoprtion of water, passive reabsorption of ions, and secretion

Hint 168

notes

Front 169

Four reasons why the renal corpuscle is….;

Back 169

1. its membranes are designed for filtration, contains highly coiled capillaries, efferent arterioles are smaller in diameter than afferent

Hint 169

notes

Front 170

Goal of autoregulation at the local level and how it accomplishes that goal;

Back 170

to cause immediate localized homeostatic adjustments.

Hint 170

notes

Front 171

define electrolyte balance

Back 171

Balances gains and losses of all electrolytes
Primarily involves balancing rates of absorption across digestive tract with rates of loss at kidneys and sweat glands

Hint 171

slide

Front 172

define acid-base balance

Back 172

Precisely balances production and loss of hydrogen ions (pH)
The body generates acids during normal metabolism:
tends to reduce pH

Hint 172

slide

Front 173

define fluid shift

Back 173

Are rapid water movements between ECF and ICF:
in response to an osmotic gradient

Hint 173

slide

Front 174

define buffer system

Back 174

interacting compounds that prevent increases or decreases in the Ph of body fluids

Hint 174

dictionary

Front 175

define acidosis

Back 175

an abnormal physiological state characterized by plasma ph below 7.35

Hint 175

dictionary

Front 176

define alkalosis

Back 176

the condidtion characterized by a plasma ph greater than 7.45

Hint 176

dictionary

Front 177

define fertilization

Back 177

the fusion of a secondary oocyte and a spermatozoon to form a zygote

Hint 177

dictionary

Front 178

define accessory glands

Back 178

secrete fluids into ducts

Hint 178

slide

Front 179

function of: reproductive system

Back 179

producing storing, nourishing and transporting functional male and female reproductive cells

Hint 179

pg 1042

Front 180

fx: testosterone

Back 180

released in response to LH, most important androgen

stimulates spermatogenesis, affect CNS function, stimulate metabolism, establish and maintainmale secondary sex characteristics.

Hint 180

pg 1057

Front 181

fx:female reproductive system

Back 181

Female reproductive system: produce sex hormones, functional gametes

and develop/support/protect an embryo and nourishes newborn infant.



Principal organs of the female reproductive system include the

ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, and external genitalia.

Hint 181

notes

Front 182

fx: estrogen

Back 182

Stimulating bone and muscle growth

• Maintaining female secondary sex characteristics such as

body hair and adipose tissue distribution

• Affects CNS activity (increases sexual drive)

• Maintaining functional accessory reproductive glands and

organs

• Initiating repair and growth of the endometrium

High levels of estrogen stimulate LH secretion, increase pituitary

sensitivity to GnRH and increase the GnRH pulse frequency.

Surge in LH concentration triggers:

• Completion of meiosis I by the primary oocyte

• Rupture of the follicular wall

• Ovulation

Hint 182

notes

Front 183

Differences b/ween mitosis and meiosis

Back 183

1. meiosis two divisions to produce four cells

mitosis has 1 division to produce two cells

2. meiosis produces haploid cells – cells that contain only one

pair of chromosomes

mitosis produces diploid cells – cells that contain both pairs of

chromosomes

3. In meiosis DNA replication only occurs once

4. Meiosis allows for genetic variation

Mitosis produces cells with an exact copy of the original DNA

Hint 183

notes

Front 184

Steps in ovarian cycle

Back 184

The ovarian cycle is divided into a follicular (preovulatory) phase

and a luteal (posovulatory) phase.

Steps:

1. Formation of primary follicles

2. Formation of secondary follicles

3. Formation of a tertiary follicle

4. Ovulation - a secondary oocyte and the surrounding

follicular cells of the corona radiata are released through

the ruptured ovarian wall

5. Formation and degeneration of the corpus luteum

The follicular cells remaining within the ovary form the corpus

luteum, which later degenerates into a corpus albicans of

scar tissue.

Hint 184

notes

Front 185

characteristics of the 3 phases of the uterine cycle

Back 185

Three phases: menses, proliferative phase, secretory phase

Menses – degeneration of the functional zone

Menstruation – endometrial sloughing, usually lasts 1 to 7

days

Dysmenorhea – painful menstruation

Proliferative phase - the functional zone undergoes repair and

thickens.

Secretory phase – endometrial glands enlarge and accelerate

their rates of secretion

Menstrual activity begins at menarche (- first menstrual period)

and continues until menopause (- last menstrual period)

Hint 185

notes

Front 186

definition of: development

Back 186

Time refuses to stand still; today’s infant will be tomorrow’s adult. The gradual modification of anatomical structures and physiological characteristics during the period from fertilization to maturity is called development

Hint 186

notes

Front 187

define differentation

Back 187

the gradual apperance of characteristic cellular specializations during development as the result of gene activation or repression

Hint 187

dictionary

Front 188

define genetics

Back 188

the study of mechanisms of hereditary

Hint 188

dictionary

Front 189

What is going on during each trimester?

Back 189

The first trimester is the period of embryological and early fetal development. During this period, the rudiments of all the major organ systems appear.
2. The second trimester is dominated by the development of organs and organ systems, a process that nears completion by the end of the sixth month. During this period, body shape and proportions change; by the end of this trimester, the fetus looks distinctively human.
3. The third trimester is characterized by rapid fetal growth and deposition of adipose tissue. Early in the third trimester, most of the fetus’s major organ systems become fully functional. An infant born one month or even two months prematurely has a reasonable chance of survival.

Hint 189

pg 1078

Front 190

What changes occur in maternal systems during pregnancy?

Back 190

Maternal Respiratory Rate Goes Up and Tidal Volume Increases
Maternal Blood Volume Increases
Maternal Requirements for Nutrients Climb 10–30 Percent

Hint 190

pg 1091

Front 191

What is going on during each stage of labor

Back 191

dilation
expulsion
placental
look up!

Hint 191

look them up

Front 192

Know the definition and characteristics of: dominant

Back 192

Dominant allele expressed in phenotype, regardless of conflicting instructions carried by other allele

Hint 192

slide

Front 193

Know the definition and characteristics of: recessive,

Back 193

Expressed in phenotype only if same allele is present on both chromosomes of homologous pair

Hint 193

slide

Front 194

Know the definition and characteristics of: incomplete dominance

Back 194

Heterozygous alleles produce unique phenotype

Hint 194

slide

Front 195

Know the definition and characteristics of: codominance

Back 195

Exhibits both dominant and recessive phenotypes for trait

Hint 195

slide

Front 196

Know the definition and characteristics of: sex-linked inheritance.

Back 196

The X chromosome also carries genes that affect somatic structures. These characteristics are called X-linked (or sex- linked), because in most cases there are no corresponding alleles on the Y chromosome

Hint 196

slide