Anatomy S2 Exam 2

Front 1

classification of blood vessels

Back 1

by size and histological organization

Front 2

tunica media

Back 2

muscle, largest in artery

Front 3

tunica externa

Back 3

collagen and elastin

Front 4

blood flow

Back 4

volume of blood flowing in unit time

Front 5

blood pressure

Back 5

hydrostatic pressure in arterial system

Front 6

circulatory pressure

Back 6

pressure difference between base of ascending aorta and entrance to right atrium

Front 7

peripheral resistance

Back 7

resistance of arterial system as effected by vascular resistance, viscosity and turbulence

Front 8

turbulence

Back 8

resistence due to irregular swirling movement of blood at high flow rates or exposure to irregular surfaces

Front 9

vascular resistance

Back 9

friction between blood and vessel wall effected by vessel diameter

Front 10

venous pressure

Back 10

hydrostatic pressure in venous system

Front 11

flow is proportional to

Back 11

pressure gradient and 1/resistance

Front 12

resistance is proportional to

Back 12

1/radius^4

Front 13

elastic arteries

Back 13

conducting, near to heart; large vessels, pulmonary truck, aorta

Front 14

muscular arteries

Back 14

distribution arteries; medium sized, tunica media has many muscle cells

Front 15

arterioles

Back 15

small, little to no tunica externa, thin or incomplete tunica media

Front 16

aneurysm

Back 16

bulge in arterial wall, caused by weak spot in elastic fibers, pressure may rupture vessel

Front 17

continuous capillaries

Back 17

endothelial cells all connected to each other, end of artery

Front 18

fenestrated capillaries

Back 18

have pores between endothelial cells, large things can move across

Front 19

venule

Back 19

nein, externa and endothelium but no tunica media

Front 20

capillary structure

Back 20

only tunica intima, diameter size of red blood vessel

Front 21

sinudoidal capillaries

Back 21

gaps between adjacent endothelial cells; in liver, spleen bone marrow, endocrine organs. permit free exchange or h2o and large proteins, monitored by phagocytic cells

Front 22

precapillary sphincter

Back 22

guards entrance to each capillary, opens and closes causing capillary blood flow in pulses

Front 23

arteriovenous anastromosis

Back 23

skip over tissues

Front 24

collaterals

Back 24

multiple arteries that contribute to one capillary bed, allow circulation if one artery is blocked

Front 25

angiogenesis

Back 25

formation of new blood vessels, vascular endothelial growth factor stimulates growth. occurs in embryo tissues and in response to factors released by cells

Front 26

vasomotion

Back 26

contraction/relaxation cycle to move blood in capillaries

Front 27

veins

Back 27

big, low blood pressure

Front 28

vein valves

Back 28

folds of tunica media, prevent blood from flowing backward, push blood forward

Front 29

distribution of blood

Back 29

30-35% in heart, arteries and capillaries, 60-65% in venous system

Front 30

capacitance

Back 30

ability to strech

Front 31

pressure gradient

Back 31

difference between pressure at heart and pressure at peripheral capillary beds

Front 32

flow

Back 32

proportional to pressure difference divided by resistance

Front 33

pulse pressure

Back 33

difference between systolic and diastolic pressure

Front 34

mean arterial pressure

Back 34

diastolic pressure + 1/3 pulse pressure because 1/3 time spent in systole and 2/3 in diastole. avg pressure on arteries

Front 35

hypertension

Back 35

140/90

Front 36

normal BP

Back 36

120/80

Front 37

elastic rebound

Back 37

arterial walls stretch in systole and rebound in diastole

Front 38

filtration

Back 38

driven by hydrostatic pressure, water and small solutes forced through capillary wall, leaves larger solutes in bloodstream

Front 39

reabsorption

Back 39

result sof osmotic pressure

Front 40

blood colloid osmotic pressure

Back 40

equals pressures required to prevent osmosis caused by suspended blood proteins that are too large to cross capillary walls

Front 41

movement out

Back 41

CHP greater than BCOP, creates positive NFP (arterial)

Front 42

movement in

Back 42

CHP is less than BCOP so negative NFP (venous)

Front 43

net capillary colloid osmotic pressure

Back 43

difference between blood colloid osmotic pressure and interstitial fluid colloid pressure

Front 44

net filtration pressure

Back 44

difference between net hydrostatic pressure and net osmotic pressure

Front 45

CHP

Back 45

capillary hydrostatic pressure

Front 46

hemorrhaging

Back 46

reduced CHP and NFP increasing reabsorption of interstitial fluids

Front 47

dehydration

Back 47

increases BCOP accelerates reabsorption

Front 48

edema

Back 48

increase in CHP or BCOP causing fluid to move out of blood and build up in peripheral tissues

Front 49

tissue perfusion

Back 49

blood flows through tissues brings O2 and nutrients carries away CO2 and waste

Front 50

autoregulation of cardiac output and BP

Back 50

immediate, localized, homostatic adjustments

Front 51

neural regulation of BP and cardiac output

Back 51

respond quickly to changes at specific sites

Front 52

endocrine mechanisms of regulating BP and cardiac output

Back 52

direct, long-term changes

Front 53

local vasodilators

Back 53

high CO2 or low O2, low pH, high H+, nitric oxide, high K+, chemicals released by inflammation, elevated local temperatures. controlled by cholenergenic nerves (NO)

Front 54

local vasoconstrictors

Back 54

constict single capillary bed by damaged tissues, constrict precapillary sphincters. controlled by arenogenic nerves

Front 55

vasomotor tone

Back 55

produced by constant action of sympathetic vasoconstrictor nerves

Front 56

baroreceptor reflexes

Back 56

respond to changes in blood pressure, increases to lower BP, inhibited when BP falls. in walls of carotid sinuses, aortic sinuses and right atrium

Front 57

chemoreceptor reflexes

Back 57

respond to changes in chemical composition particulary pH and dissolved gases. in carotis bodies and aortic bodies

Front 58

central chemoreceptors

Back 58

monitor cerebral spinal fluid

Front 59

angiotensin II

Back 59

responds to fall in renal blood pressure, stimulates aldesterone, ADH, thirst, cardiac output and peripheral vasodilation

Front 60

short term response to BP drop

Back 60

sympathetic activation and release of adrenal hormones E and NE to increase cardiac output and peripheral vasoconstriction

Front 61

long term response to BP drop

Back 61

kidneys release renin to activate angiotensin II, erythropoeitin released

Front 62

erythropoeitin

Back 62

increases RBC production

Front 63

natrial natriuretic peptides

Back 63

produced by cells in right atrium

Front 64

brain natriuretic peptides

Back 64

produced b ventricular muscle cells

Front 65

natriuretic peptides

Back 65

respond to excessive diastolic stretching, lowers blood volume and pressure, lowers blood sodium via urine

Front 66

light exercise

Back 66

extensive vasodilation occurs increasing circulation, venous return increases with muscle contraction, increased cardiac output

Front 67

heavy exercise

Back 67

activates sympathetic nervous system, increase cardiac output to max, restrict blood flow to nonessential organs, redirect to skeletal muscle, lungs, heart, blood to brain doesn't change

Front 68

shock

Back 68

short term compensates until 20% of blood volume is lost, failure to restore leads to shock

Front 69

compensated shock

Back 69

body is coping

Front 70

blockage of coronary blood flow

Back 70

angina, tissue damage, heart failure, death

Front 71

pathogens

Back 71

microscopic organisms tat cause disease, viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasites, each attacks in specific way

Front 72

immunity

Back 72

product of all body cells, not just lymphocytes

Front 73

lymph

Back 73

fluid similar to plasma but no plasma proteins; connective tissue

Front 74

function of lymphnotic system

Back 74

to produce, maintain and distribute lymphocytes

Front 75

production of lymphocytes

Back 75

in lymphoid tissues, lymphoid organs, red bone marrow

Front 76

lymphatic capillaries

Back 76

small, single celled walls. differ from blood in: start as pockets not tubes, larger diameters, thinner walls, flat or irregular outline, one way not loop

Front 77

lymphatic flow

Back 77

from capillaries to larger lymphatic vessels containing one way valves, travel with veins

Front 78

lymph fluid circulation

Back 78

blood plasma to lymph and back to venous system, transports hormones, nutrients and waste

Front 79

lymphocyte circulation

Back 79

blood to interstitial fluid through capillaries returns to venous blood through lymphatic vessels

Front 80

lacteals

Back 80

special lymphatic capillaries in small intestine to transport lipids from digestive tract

Front 81

thoracic duct

Back 81

expands into cisterna chyli (receives lymph from right and left lumbar trunks, intestinal trunk) empties into left subclavian vein

Front 82

lymphatic duct

Back 82

collects lymph from right trunks, empties into right subclavian vein - only drais upper right half of body

Front 83

lymphedema

Back 83

blockage of lymph drainage from a limb causing severe swelling, interferes with immune function

Front 84

lymphocytes

Back 84

20-30% circulating WBC/leukocytes

Front 85

T Cells

Back 85

thymus dependent lymphocyte, created in bone marrow, 80% circulating lymphocytes, cell mediated immunity

Front 86

cytotoxic T cell

Back 86

kill cells infected with virus

Front 87

memory T cell

Back 87

respond to foreign substance and remain in circulation

Front 88

helper T cell

Back 88

mediator, stimulates immune by stimulating T cell and B cell

Front 89

suppressor T cell

Back 89

mediator, inhibits immune T and B cells to control response

Front 90

B cells

Back 90

antibody mediated response, 10-15% circulating lymphocytes, differentiate into plasma cells and memory cells

Front 91

antigens

Back 91

targets that identify any pathogen or foreign compound

Front 92

immunoglobulins

Back 92

antibodys, the binding of a specific antibody to antigen initiates antibody-mediated immunity to destroy

Front 93

natural killer cells

Back 93

5-10% of circulating lymphocytes, responsible fr immunological surveillance, large and granular, attack foreign cells, virus infected cells and cancer

Front 94

lymphopoiesis

Back 94

involves bone marrow, thymus, peripheral lymphoid tissues,

Front 95

hemocytoblasts

Back 95

in bone marrow; lymphoid stem cells

Front 96

group I stem cells

Back 96

remain in bone marow and develop with help of stromal cells to produce B and NK

Front 97

group II stem cells

Back 97

develop in thymus, produce T cells and are environmentally isolated by blood thymus barrier

Front 98

B cell differentiation

Back 98

triggered with exposure to hormone cytokine (interleukin-7)

Front 99

t cell differentiation

Back 99

triggered with exposure to several thymic hormones

Front 100

lymphoid nodule

Back 100

areolar tissue with densely packed lymphocytes with center of dividing lymphocytes

Front 101

tonsils

Back 101

palatine tonsil, lingual tonsil, pharyngeal tonsil (adnoid)

Front 102

appendix

Back 102

mass of fused lymphnoid nodules

Front 103

outer cortex of lymph node

Back 103

B cells

Front 104

deep cortex fo lymph node

Back 104

T cells

Front 105

medulla of lymph node

Back 105

rapidly dividing cells, germinative center

Front 106

dendritic cells

Back 106

marcophages on outside of lymph node that present pathogens to immune system

Front 107

thymus

Back 107

in mediastinum, atrophies after puberty, diminishing effectiveness of immune system 2 lobes divided into septa

Front 108

thymosin

Back 108

extract from thymus that promotes development of lymphocytes

Front 109

functions of spleen

Back 109

removal of abnormal blood cells and other blood components by phagocytosis, storage of iron, initiate of immune response by B cells and T cells in response to antigens in blood. only organ that filters blood and lymph

Front 110

nonspecific defenses

Back 110

physical barriers, phagocytes, immunological surveillance (NK), interferons, complement, inflammation

Front 111

immunological surveillance

Back 111

constantly monitors normal tissues with NK cells

Front 112

interferons

Back 112

chemical messengers that trigger production of antiviral proteins in normal cells, do not kill viruses but block replication

Front 113

complement

Back 113

system of circulating proteins, assists antibodies in destruction of pathogens, most bacteria

Front 114

microphages

Back 114

neutrophils and eosinophils, leave bloodstream enter peripheral tissues to fight infections, nonspecific defense

Front 115

macrophages

Back 115

large derived from monocytes, distributed throughout body, engulf and destroy with enzymes, bind to pathogens so other cells can destroy it, destroy pathogen by releasing toxic chemicals, nonspecific

Front 116

special histocytes

Back 116

microglia (in CNS), kpeffer cells in liver

Front 117

alveolar machrophages

Back 117

in alveoli of lung

Front 118

activation of NK cells

Back 118

identify and attach to abnormal cells, golgi apparatus froms perforin vesicles, vesicles release perforins via exocytosis, perforins lyse abnormal cell's plasma membrane

Front 119

immunlogical escape

Back 119

cells that escape NK cells

Front 120

cytokines

Back 120

chemical messangers acting locally and globally as hormone released by activated lymphocytes and macrophages - interferon

Front 121

alpha interferon

Back 121

produced by WBC to stimulate NK

Front 122

beta interferon

Back 122

secreted by fibroblasts to slow inflammation

Front 123

gamma interferon

Back 123

secreted by T cells and NK cells to stimulate macrophage activity

Front 124

classical pathway

Back 124

fast method, CI binds to antibody attached to antigen, protein works as enzyme causing C3B to attach to cell wall and lyse bacteria

Front 125

alternative pathway

Back 125

slow method, exposed to antigen, factors P, B and D interact in plamsa to trigger C3B to lyse bacterium, antibody binding not necessary

Front 126

membrane attack complex

Back 126

5 complement proteins attacking pathogen membrane

Front 127

opsonization

Back 127

tagging cell to phagocyte and work with antibodies

Front 128

fever

Back 128

body temp above 37C or 99F, caused by pyrogens (interleukin - 1)

Front 129

four properties of immunity

Back 129

specific, versatile (many types of lymphocytes), memory, tolerance (ignores normal antigens)

Front 130

antigen presentation

Back 130

I cells only recognize antigens that are bound to glycoproteins in plasma membranes

Front 131

MHC proteins

Back 131

membrane gylcoproteins that bind to antigens, genetically coded in chromosome, differs for each individual, self identifying

Front 132

class I MHC

Back 132

on all nucleated cells, pick up small peptides and carry to surface, T cells ignore normal peptides, viral peptides cause I cell to destroy

Front 133

class II MHC

Back 133

only on antigen presenting cells and lymphocytes. antigen fragments from antigen processing of pathogens bind to class II protein then inserted into plasma membrane to stimulate T cells

Front 134

antigen presenting cells

Back 134

APC, responsible for activating T cells against foreign cells and proteins, is not to be destroyed but signals something bad has been present and taken care of

Front 135

phagocytic APC

Back 135

fixed and free machrophages, kupffer cells, microglia

Front 136

nonphagocytic APC

Back 136

langerhans cells in skin, dendritic cells in lymph noes and spleen

Front 137

antigen recognition

Back 137

inactive T cell receptors recognize class I or II MHC proteins, binding occurs when MHC protein matches antigen

Front 138

CD markers

Back 138

in T cell membranes molecular mechanism of antigen recognition, more than 70 types

Front 139

CD3

Back 139

receptor complex found in all t cells

Front 140

CD8

Back 140

found on cytotoxic T cells and suppressor T cells, respond to antigens on Class I MHC proteins

Front 141

CD4

Back 141

found on helpter T cells, respond to antigens on class II MC proteins

Front 142

MHC

Back 142

major histocompatibility complex

Front 143

costimulation

Back 143

for T cell to be activated it must be costimulate by binding to stimulating cell at second site which confirms first signal

Front 144

activation of CD8 cells

Back 144

exposure to antigens, one responds quickly to produce cytotoxic and memory T cells, other responds slowly to produce suppressor T cells - respond to Class I

Front 145

activation of CD4 cells

Back 145

activate helper T cells, secrete cytokines, memory helper T cells remain in reserve

Front 146

four functions of cytokines

Back 146

stimulate division of T cells, attract and stimulate macrophages, increase activity of cytotoxic T cells, promote activation of B cells

Front 147

B cell sensitization

Back 147

antigen taken up by B cell, processed and reappear on surface bound to class II MHC protein

Front 148

plasma cells

Back 148

large, pump out large amount of antibodies, from B cells

Front 149

antibody structure

Back 149

two parallel pairs of polypeptide chains (one heavy one light) each chain had constant and variable segment

Front 150

hapten

Back 150

partial antigen, must attach to a carrier molecule to act as a complete antigen, carrier also attacked (penicillin allergy)

Front 151

5 classes of antibodies

Back 151

determined by constant segments, have no effect on antibody specificity

Front 152

IgG

Back 152

largest, most diverse class of antibody, 80%

Front 153

IgE

Back 153

attach to basophil and mast cells, role in allergy

Front 154

IgD

Back 154

role in sensitization, bind antigens

Front 155

IgM

Back 155

1st secreted after antigen encounter

Front 156

IgA

Back 156

secreted in tears, salica, mucous, breast milk to stop pathogen before they enter body

Front 157

oncotic pressure

Back 157

osmotic pressure exerted by proteins in blood plasma that usually pulls water into circulatory system