Anatomy & Physiology

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anatomy & physiology

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anatomy- deals w/ structures of body parts, -forms and organizations

physiology- functions of body parts-what they do and how they do it

function of part depends on way it is constructed

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levels of organization and 2 that have life

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atom, molecule, macromolecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism

*cell & organism

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10 characteristics of life

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1.Movement- change in body position, motion of organs
2. Responsiveness-sensing or reacting to internal or external changes
3.Growth- increase in body size, w/o change in shape
4. Reproduction- production offspring
5. Respiration-obtaining O2, using O2 to release E from foods, removing gasesous wastes
6. Digestion-breakdown of food sub. into forms to be absorped
7.Absorption-passage of sub. through membranes into body fluids
8.Circulation-movement of substances in body fluids
9.Assimilation-changing of absorbed sub. into chemically different forms
10.Excretion removal of waiste from metabolism

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5 requirements of organisms

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1.h20-for met. processes, medium for met reactions, trans sub, reg body temp
2. food- supply E and raw materials for prod of necc. sub, reg vital reactions
3.o2- release E from food sub, drives met reactions
4.Heat-reg rates of metabolic reactions
5. Pressure- application of force, atmospheric for breathing, hydrostatic to help circ blood

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homeostasis

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-bodies maintance of a stable internal environment
-most of met E spent on it

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homeostatic mechanisms

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1.Receptors- provide info about specific conditions in internal envirn.
2.Control center-has set pt, tells what particular value should be
3.Effectors-(ex.muscles/glands-cause responses that alterconditions in internal environ.

inlcude those tha regulate body temp, BP,Blood glucose

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Metabolism

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acquistion & utilization of E by an organism

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negative feedback loop

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process of homeostatic mech to detect changes, activate effectors to return conditions to normal and reg homeostasis

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axial portion

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head, kneck and trunk

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appendicular portion

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upper and lower limbs

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dorsal cavity

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cranial cavity-brain
vertebral cavity-spinal cord, & surrounded by sectionsof back bone

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ventral cavity

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1.thoracic cavity-heart&lungs
2.abdominopelvic cavity-ab-sm&lg intestines, somtach pelvic-urinary,genitals,ends of dig system

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what seperates thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities?

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diaphram-broad thin muscle

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mediastinum

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region btwn lungs

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serous membranes

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line walls of thoracic and abdominal cavities, fold back to cover organs in these cavities, secrete serous fluid that sep the layer linging the wall from layer covering oragan

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parietal serous membranes

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lines walls, secrete serous fluid

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visceral serous membranes

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covers oragans, secretes serous fluids

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pleural membranes

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line thoracic cavities & cover lungs

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viscera

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organs w/in a body cavity

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pericardial membranes

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surround heart and cover its surface

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pleural & pericardial cavities

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potential spaces btwn membranes

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peritoneal membranes

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line abdominopelvic cavity & cover its organs

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11 main body systems

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integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous,endocrine,digestive,respitory, cardiovascular,lymphatic,urinary, reproductive

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integumentary system

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covers body,-skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, &sebacious glands, protects underlying tissue, regulates body temp, has sens receptors, synthesizes substances

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skeletal system

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bones, ligaments, cartilage that bind bones together, framework, protective shield, attachements for muscles

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muscular system

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muscles of body-body movement, maintains posture, produces heat

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nervous system

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brain, spinal cord, nerves, sense organs-receives impulse from sensory parts interprets them, acts on them stimulating muscles or glands to respond

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endocrine system

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glands-secretes hormones that help reg met. by stimulating target tissues includes pituitary, thyroid, adrenal ovaires, testes, thymus etc

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digestive system

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receives food, breaks down nutrients that can pass through cell membranes eliminates materials not absorbed-mouth, tongue, esophagus, stomach etc

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respitory system

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takes in and release air & exchanges gases btwn blood and air - lungs trachea, bronchi

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cardiovascular system

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heart-pumps blood, blood vessels-carry blood to and from body parts, trnasports O2,nutrientsm hormones and waiste

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lymphatic system

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lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes,thymus, spleen- immune system

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urinary system

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kindeys, ureters, bladdre, urethra-filters waiste from blood,maintain fluid and electrolyte balance

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reproductive system

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enables organism to reproduce

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superior

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above another part, closer to head

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inferior

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below another part, closer to feet

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anterior

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toward front

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posterior

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toward back

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medial

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relates to imaginary midline dividing body into equal right and left halves, medial if closer to this line that another part(nose medial to eyes)

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lateral

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toward side w/ respect to imaginary line (ears lateral to eyes)

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ipsalateral

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pertains to same side

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contralateral

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refers to opp side

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proximal

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closer to trunk of body or closer to another part than another (elbow proxiaml to wrist but not toe)

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distal

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part is farther from trunk or spec other part (toes distal to elbow)

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superfical

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near surface

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peripheral

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outward or near surface, describes location of certain blood vessels and nerves

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deep

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more internal

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sagittal

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lengthwise cut that divides the body into right and left portions

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transverse

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cut that divides body into superior and inferior portions

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coronal

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divides body into anterior and posterior

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4 body regions

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1.right upper quadrant-RUQ

2.Left upper quadrant-LUQ

3.Right lower quadrant-RLQ

Left lower quadrant-LLQ

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matter

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anything that has weight and takes up space

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ch2 start:
biochemistry

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chemistry of living organisms

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element

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naturally occuring matter is made up of 92 elements
occur most frequently in compounds,and are composed of atoms

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atoms

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smallest complete units of elements that has properties of that element atoms of diff elements vary in size, weight and ways of interacting

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compound

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elements that are part of chemical combinations

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bulk element

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elements the body needs in lg amounts- O, H,C,N, S,P - make up more than95% of body

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trace elements

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elements required by body in sm amounts

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ultra trace elements

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elements required by the body in sm amounts that in lg amounts may be toxic-arenic

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atomic structure

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atom has central nucleus, 1 or more elctron that constantly moves around nucleus, nucleus has protons and neutrons

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whats in nucleus of H?

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only i proton...no neutron

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proton

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relatively lg particle in nucleus, has positive charge & equal weight as neutrons in nucleus

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complete atom

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electrically neutral

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electron

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almost no weight, negative electrical charge, is in constant motion around nucleus, largley determines how atoms will interact w/ each other

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neutron

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particle w/ about same weight as a P, no charge-neutral, found in nucleus

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ion

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particle that is elctrically charge because it has gained or loss at least one or more electrons

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molecule

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particel formed by union of two or more atoms

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atomic #

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= to # of protons in each atom

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atomic weight

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= to # of protons + # of neutrons in each atom

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isotope

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atoms w/ same atomic #, but diff atomic weight due to differing #'s of neutrons, all isotopes of an element chemically react in the same manner, some isotopes are radioactive and release atomic radiation

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molecular formula

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represents the #'s and kinds of atoms in a molecule

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if atoms of the same and different elements combine what happens?

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same combine- produce molecule of that element

different combine- form molecules of substances called compounds

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bonds

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when atoms combine w/ other atoms as a result of interactions btwn their electrons

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electron shells

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found around nucleus,
1st holds 2, 2nd holds 8, 3rd holds 8, w/ lower energy levels filled first, # in outer shell determines whether it will react with another atom

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atomic reactions & octet rule

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react in a way that leaves outer most shell completly filled, acheiving more stable structure known as octet rule

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inert atoms

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have outermost electron shell filled and therefore are inactive

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what happens when lose and gain electrons

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lose- become +
gain- become -

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ionic bonds vs covalent bonds

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ionic- when ions of opp charges attract and join- when Na loses an electron to Cl and they attract
covalent- when atoms bond by sharing electrons- when 2 H atoms share a pair of elctrons

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polar bond

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=# of protons & electrons but one end has more electrons than the other-H2O, so one end is + and one end is -

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hydrogen bonds

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bonds btwn H in a compound- Weak!!!!

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reactant

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bonds being changed in a chemical reaction

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products

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bonds formed at end of reactions conclusion

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3 kinds of chem reactions

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1.lg molecules form from sm ones
2.decomposition- lg particles break down to form sm ones
3.exchange reactions-parts of 2 diff molecules trade position

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breaking bonds___
creating bonds____

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breaking releases energy
creating requires energy

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reversible reaction

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products can change back to the reactants, direction of reversal depends on proportion of reactants and products, the energy available and the presence or absence of catalysts

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catalyst

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influence rates of chem reactions but are not consumed in the reaction

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electrolytes

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substances that release ions in h2O

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acids

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electrolytes that release H in H2O

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bases

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substances that combine w/ H atoms

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salts

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combo of acid and base reaction

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Ph Scale

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7-0 H+ concentration increases- gets more acidic-apple juice, gastric juice
7-14 OH- sconcentration increase-basic(alkaline)-amonia, milk of magnesia

each # represents 10 fold

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inorganic substances body requires

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inorganic substance usually react w/ H2O or disolve in H2O to release ions-(electrolytes)-H2o, O, CO2, & inorganic salts

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4 organic substances and their building blocks

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1.Carbs-provide much of E cell requires-BB=simple sugar molecules
2.Lipids-fats(triglyceride) phosp.& steroids-supply E and used to build cell parts-BB=molecules of glycerol & fatty acids
3.proteins-basically structural, E sources, hormones, enzymes& catalysts-BB=amino acids
4.nucleic acids-constitute genes, instructions that control cell activity and direct protein syn.BB=nucleotides-most important=composed of RNA,DNA

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phospholipids

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glycerol (phospho head), and fatty acid tail
phosphate portion is soluable in H2O and fatty acid tail insoluable in H2O

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steroids

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complex structures w/ connected rings of C atoms-cholesterol

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saturated fats

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fat molecules that contain only saturated fatty acids-no double bonds, sat w/ H atoms

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unsaturated fats

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include unsaturated fatty acids-has at least one double bond

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ch3 start
3 major parts of a cell

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1.nucleaus-inner most, encosed by nucleaur envelope, hold genetic material
2.cytoplasm-mass of fluid that surrounds nucleus, and is encircled by a thinnermembrane-(plasma membrane)
has cytoplasmic organelles within it suspeneded in cytosol that perform specific functions
3.cell membrane-selectively permeable outermost part of cell consisting of phospholipid bilayer embedded w/ proteins

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cell membrane

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hydrophilic phosphate head, fatty acid tail, maintains integrity of cell, controls entrane & exit of substances,

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signal transduction

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allows the cell to recieve and respond to incoming messages

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lipid solulable molecules

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-oxygen, CO2 and steroid hormones
-amino acids, sugars, proteins, nucleic acids and various ions cannot pass through

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lipis move through plasma membrane through____________

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diffusion

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cellular adhesion molecule

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CAMS-allow certain cells to touch or bind- proteins that guide cellular movemeent w/in body

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3 intercellular junctions

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(cite of union btwn cells)
1.tight junctions-when membranes of adjacent cells converge and fuse, surrounding cell like a belt and junction closes-ex-cells that line digestive tract in sheetlike layers
2.desomones-rivets adjacent skin cells, so they form reinforced structural units
3.gap junctions- form tubular channels that link the cytoplasm of adjacent cells and allow ions, nutrients and other small molecules to move btwn them

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ribosome

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composed of protein and RNA and provide a structural support and enzymatic activity required to link amino acids to from protein-protein syntheseis

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endoplasmic reticulum

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rough & smooth
composed of connected membraneous sacs, canals, vessiclaes that provide a tubular communication system and an attachement for ribosoes, also functions in protein syn. (conveyor belt where products made)

smooth-where lipids syn.
rough-has ribosomes-sites of protein syn. that then move through tubules of ER to the golgi for further processing

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golgi apparatus

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contuation of the conveyor belt E.R.
stack of flattened, membraneous sacs that package glycoprotieins for secretion

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vesicles

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membraneous, cytoplasmic sac formed by an infolding of the cell mem. usually brings a sm amount of liquid or solid into & outof cells

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mitochondria

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mebraneous sacs containing enzymes that catalyze the reactions that release energy from nutrient molecules and transform it into a usable form
(energy producing area) majority if citric acid cycle & electron trans chain happens here

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ATP

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adenosine triophosphate-biological energy molecule, important in cellular respiration in mitoc.

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lysosomes

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garbage disposal
membraneous sacs containing digestive enzymes that destroy debris and worn out organelles-hook together with other cells and break down bad stuff

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proxisomes

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like lysosomes, most abundant in liver &kidney cells, contain peroxidases which contains enzymes that decompose H peroxide

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centrisomes

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"butruses"
nonmembraneos structure consisting of 2 centrioles that aid in the distribution of chromosomes during cell division- pull on & distribute chromosomes

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clilia & flagella

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motile extensions on some cell surfaces
cilia--numerous tiny, hairlike structures on that wave, moving fluids across the cell surfaces-usually on epithelial cells-inner linning of resp track for ex
flagella-longer extensions such as tail of sperm

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micro filaments

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tiny rods of protein actin that occur in meshwork or bundles & cause various kinds of cellular movement

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micro tubules

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long slender tubes with diameters 2 or 3 times bigger than microfilaments. composed of tubulin-help form cytoskeleton
aid in cellular movement &support and stablilize cell

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what is in the nucleus?

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1,cromatin fibers that encase DNA-(what chromosomes are made of when chromatin condenses & becomes more formed)

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nucleaus is encased by?

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double layer envelope- which conists of inner & outter lipid bilayer mebrane

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nucleaur pores

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round openings(channeles) that join the two bilayers of the nuclear envelope

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nucleoulus

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w/in nucleus- small dense body that has RNA and DNA & proteins where ribosomes are created

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chromatin

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loosley coiled fibers in the nucleaur fluid, tightly coil to form chromosomes-composed of DNA fibers coiled around histones(clusters sof proteins)

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chromosomes house____

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genes and genses house DNA

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passive vs active

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passive- requires no energy to be generated at the site
active- requires energy from cellular met.

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4 passive ways to get stuff in

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1. diffusion-when molecules move from high concentration to -low concentration
2.faciliatated diffusion- diffusiosn of lg particles (across selectively permeable mem that cant fit through cell membrane)
3.osmosis-diffusion of H2O
4.filtration-when molecules forced through mem. usually from hydrostatic pressure

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hydrostatic pressure

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created by the weight of H2O due to gravity

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nucleic acids are BB of____

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DNA & RNA

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osmotic pressure

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increases a # of partiocles in a solution increase

cells loose water when in hypertonic
gain when in hypotonic
isotonic when cell has same conc of disolved part as cell contents

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what 3 things in active transport?

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endocytosis, excocytosis and transcytosis

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endocytosis

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how stuff gets in, has pino, phago, and cell mediated endo

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pinocytosis

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bringing in H2) or other fluids-cell indents, then that indent seals of fluid into a vesicle and cell closes and goes into cytoplasm of cell, breaks down and fluid become part of cell

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phagocytosis

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gets solid(bacteria) in- takes in particle like in pino, then a lysosome in cell attatches to the vesicle and digests particle then diffuse out of cell

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cell mediated endocytosis

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moves specific paritcles into cell
receptor proteins extend out of cell, ligands(molecules that bond spec to receptors) bond to ligand receptors and are brought in through an indent etc.

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exocytosis

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how get things out such as newly syntheiszed proteins

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cell cycle has what 3 basic parts?

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interphase-growing & replicating of DNA, mitosis-(P,M,T,A)-how all cells divide except sex cells and Cytokinesis-divsion into 2 cells

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interphase

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3 phases
G1-cell growth, S phase- replication of DNA and G2 phase-grows more

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mitosis

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Prophase-chromatin condense & become visible as chromosomes, nucleur env. & nucleolus disperse, spindle apparatus forms
Metaphase-chrom. align along equater
Anaphase-sister chromatids separate to opp poles of cell, events begin which lead to cyto.
Telephase-nucleaur envelope assemble around2 daughter nuclie, chromosomes decondense, spindles disappear
Cytokinesis-division of cytoplasm into 2 cells

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tumor

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tissue mass formed when cells lose division control

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benign vs malignant

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benign-similiar to tissue they grow from remains in place, eventually interfereing
Malignant-invasive, creating tissue nothing like what it grows from, extremly rapid growing-metatisize, & spread quickly

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matastisis

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movement of cancer cells through body