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189 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Functions of the Lymphatic System
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1. Fluid Recovery
2. Immunity 3. Lipid absorption |
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Describe Lymph
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1. a fluid similar to plasma with less protein
2. Fluid that leaks out of capillaries and isn't re-absorbed by osmosis |
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The competing forces in vessels
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1. Hydrostatic Pressure
2. Osmotic Pressure |
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How many volumes of lymph are released by capillaries a day? How many are pulled back in?
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24L and 20.4L, respectively
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Where is the beginning and the end of the lymphatic vessels
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begins in peripheral tissues, ends in the venous circulation
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The Structure of Lymphatic Capillaries? Benefits?
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1. Close ended (no circulation)
2. single layer of endothelium 3. no basic membrane 4. overlapping endothelial cells 1. easier for fluid, bacteria, and broken cells to enter |
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What is the pressure like in lymphatic capillaries?
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Very low, skeletal muscle and respiratory pumps are needed to push fluid along
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What are the collecting vessels & lymphatic trunks?
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Like veins; they have valves and connect the lymphatic capillaries
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What are Lymphatic ducts?
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Large collecting vessels
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What is the thoracic duct?
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1. Largest lymph vessel
2. empties lymph into left subclavian vein 3. drains entire left body and right side below diaphram |
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What is the Right lymphatic duct?
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1. empties into right subclavian vein
2. drains right side of body above diaphragm |
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Two types of Lymphatic Cells
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1. Lymphocytes
2. Antigen-Presenting cells (APCs) |
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Types of Lymphocytes
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1. B-cells
2. T-cells 3. NK cells |
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Role of antigen-presenting cells
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engulf matter and alert immune system of particles in lymph. They don't know what is good and bad, are just the scouts
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Types of APCs
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1. Macrophages (engulf tissue debris, bacteria, foreign matter, dead neutrophils)
2. Dendritic cells (branched APCs in epidermis |
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Where leukocytes are produced
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red bone marrow (counts as a lymphatic organ)
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Describe the Thymus
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1. lies in mediastinum, above the heart
2. T cells are born in marrow and are developed in thymus 3. "T-cell college", teaches their role. Only 2% of cells make it through |
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Where are some of the lymph nodes?
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Pelvic, Inguinal, axillary, cervical, lumbar
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Describe the Lymph Nodes
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1. Oval shaped
2. Location: throughout the body, especially at lymphatic junction points 3. Lymphocytes and macrophages congregate to monitor lymph |
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What happens in the Lymph Nodes if an infection is present?
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1. Lymphocytes destroy pathogens/bacteria
2. Lymph nodes expand to include more cells "for battle" |
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The role of the spleen in the lymphatic system
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filters dead cells and bacteria out of the blood
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In a slide of the kidney, what is the red and white pulp?
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1. old erythrocytes
2. lymphocytes |
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3 locations of tonsils
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1. Pharyngeal Tonsil (nasal cavity)
2. Two Palatine Tonsils (throat) 3. Numerous Lingual tonsils (base of tongue) |
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What is tonsillitis?
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inflammation of the tonsils
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Facts about lymphoid nodules
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1. less organized without fibrous capsule
2. found beneath epithelial lining respiratory, digestive, urinary systems |
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what is edema?
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the increase of interstitial fluid in any organ
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Fundamental causes of Edema
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1. Increase capillary filtration
2. Reduced re-absorption 3. Lymphatic obstruction |
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Explain how increased capillary filtration can cause edema
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the capillaries have more permeability, so they let more fluid out
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Explain how reduced re-absorption can cause edema
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Hydrostatic pressure wins out, and not enough fluid comes back (low osmolarity, Kwashiorkor)
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Explain how lymphatic obstruction can cause edema
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the drainage vessels get blocked, lymph builds up in the surrounding tissue. (elephantiasis)
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What is Lymph node metastasis?
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The spread of cancer to different parts of the body
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What is the spread of cancer to different parts of the body?
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lymph node metastasis
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What is a sentinel-node biopsy?
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A tumor is injected with a dye, and the nodes immediately downstream are highlighted and extracted
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The two groups of leukocytes
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Granuloctyes and Agranulocytes
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Types of Granulocytes
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Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils
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Types of Agranulocytes
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Monocytes, Lymphocytes
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Major types of Lymphocytes
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B-Cells
T-cells NK-cells |
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What is the production of WBCs?
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leukopoiesis
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What is Leukopoiesis controlled by?
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various hormones and Colony-stimulating factors (CSFs)
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What is leukopenia?
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to few white blood cells
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What is leukocytosis?
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too many WBCs
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What is leukemia?
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cancer of any leukocytes
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Normal amount of neutrophils
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50-70%
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Normal amount of Eosinophils
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2-4%
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Normal amount of Basophils
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<1%
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Normal amount of Monocytes
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2-8%
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Normal amount of Lymphocytes
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20-30%
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Morphology of Lymphocytes
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1. slightly larger than RBCs
2. Large nucleus with a thin halo of cytoplasm |
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Morphology of Monocytes
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1. Larger than Lymphocytes
2. Large oval or kidney-shaped nucleus |
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Morphology of Basophils
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Dark purple granules hide the nucleus
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Morphology of Eosinophils
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1. red/orange granules
2. 2-lobed nucleus |
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Morphology of Neutrophils
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1. 2-5 lobed nucleus
2. very dark nucleus 3. light violet/pinkish cytoplasm |
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Function of neutrophils
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phagocytize bacteria
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Function of Eosinophils
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phagocytize allergens, parasites, and antigen-antibody complexes
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Function of Basophils
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Release histamine and heparin which helps kill invaders and reduce blood clotting
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Function of Monocytes
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1. Become macrophages (after 1 day of circulation)
2. Phagocytize pathogens, dead cells, debris |
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Function of Lymphocytes
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1. Destroy virus infected cells, cancer cells, foreign cells
2. Coordinate immune system 3. Produce antibodies |
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Two types of the body's defenses
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1. Non-specific resistance (external barriers like the skin, and white blood cells, fever, neutrophils)
2. Specific immunity (vaccinations, antibodies) that are extremely active in disease removal |
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What is the body's first line of defense
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External barriers like the skin
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What is the body's second line of defense
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White blood cells, fever
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What is the body's third line of defense?
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antibodies
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Types of external barriers
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1. Intact skin
2. Mucous membranes 3. Flushing effects |
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What is lysozyme?
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attacks the bacterial cell walls
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Explain Mucous membranes
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Line the digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive systems to catch foreign particles
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Explain flushing effects
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sneezing, coughing, urination
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Locations of the leukocytes
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in circulation, tissues, and mucous membranes
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Explain phagocytosis
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Bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens are phagocytized and digested by neutrophils and macrophages
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Major roles of Phagocytes
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1. Get rid of old junk
2. Extract information for the immune system 3. Act as a surveillance system |
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Explain Respiratory Burst
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1. Called Respiratory because of oxygen, not the lungs
2. A bacteria or parasite is detected, then 3. Lysosomal enzymes are released and produced 4. Superoxides are highly reactive, Hydrogen peroxide kills bacteria, and Hypochlorite is bleach |
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Lysosomal enzymes are released by:
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1. Neutrophils (they create a highly toxic killing zone)
2. Eosinophils |
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What are NK cells?
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A non-specific lymphocyte
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Roles of NK cells
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1. Be on constant alert for bad cells that no longer "self" have proteins on the surface that prevent their destruction
2. Release chemicals to punch a whole in the cell and order it to self destruct |
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Examples of cells that would no longer have a "self" protein on their surface
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cancer cells, transplanted cells, virus infected cells, sometimes pathogens
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What are Perforins?
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Released by NK cells, they polymerize and punch a whole in a cell membrance
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What are Granzymes?
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Released by NK cells, they enter the whole created by Perforins and degrade the enemy cell's enzymes. This triggers a self-destruction
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What are interferons?
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Chemical signals released by virus infected cells to warn other cells to activate their defenses
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What are Complements?
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A Series of inactive blood chemicals/proteins (11) that are activated by antibodies
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What do Complements do?
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1) punch holes in the pathogen's cell walls
2) promote inflammation 3) aids in Phagocytosis (called opsonization) |
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What is opsonization?
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When complements help the phagocytes to digest bacteria and pathogens
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What is a fever?
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The body rising about the baseline temperature for a person (avg. 37,98.6)
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What causes a fever?
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Pyrogens
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What are Pyrogens?
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any protein or toxin that causes the body to create a fever (bacteria, virus proteins, some interferons
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What are the benefits of a fever?
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1) increase the rate of our enzyme reactions
2) Make our NK cells and phagocytes stronger (optimal temperature higher than pathogens') 3) inhibit pathogens from functioning |
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When is a fever too high?
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40.5 C or 105 F
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What does a high fever cause?
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1. De-naturing of our proteins
2. nausea, dizziness, hallucinations 3. convulsions 4. greatly affects the nervous system |
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What causes inflammation?
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An injury from almost anything
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Is inflammation specific or non-specific?
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non-specific
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What are the Cardinal Sign of inflammation?
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1. Swelling
2. Redness 3. Pain 4. Heat |
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What is the purpose of an Inflammation?
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1. Limit the spread of pathogens
2. Attract leukocytes 3. Remove dead cells, debris, dead tissue 4. Initiate repair |
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What is the first step in an inflammatory response?
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The injured tissues release chemicals that stimulate sensory neurons and cause pain
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What are mast cells and what part do they play in inflammatory response?
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They are like basophils, and they release histamine, heparin, and chemotactic signals
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Why do mast cells release histamine during an inflammatory response?
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1. Vasodialation to create blood flow and bring RBCs, WBCs, and nutrients (redness and heat)
2. Increases vessel permeability (swelling) |
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Why do mast cells release heparin during an inflammatory response?
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Prevents blood clots, which would restrict blood flow and WBCs from responding
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What are chemotactic signals?
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the chemical attraction of phagocytes to an area
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Whats the point of releasing chemotactic signals?
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Bring neutrophils and monocytes (8-10 hrs later)
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What does it mean for a disease to be Autoimmune?
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The body has a response against itself (lack of tolerance)
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What is an autoantibody?
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An antibody against normal cell components (itself)
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Theories for how autoimmune diseases occur
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1. Cross-reactivity (Antibodies against foreign antigens mistakenly recognize a similar self-antigen
2. Abnormal exposure of self-antigens to the blood |
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Examples of Autoimmune diseases
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1. Rheumatic fever
2. Type I diabetes 3. Rheumatoid arthritis 4. Systemic Lupus Erythematosus |
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What is Rheumatic fever ?
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autoantibodies attack heart valves caused by streptococcus bacteria
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What is Type I diabetes?
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autoantibodies attack insulin producing cells
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What is Rheumatoid arthritis?
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autoantibodies attack joint tissue
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What is Systemic Lupus Erythematosus?
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Antibodies attack DNA and other nuclear antigens
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What are the two types of immunodeficiency disorders?
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Severe combined (SCID) and Acquired immune deficiency (AIDS)
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Cause and Effect of SCIDS and what does the acronym stand for?
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Genetic, a failure to develop mature B- and T-cells, and Severe combined immunodeficiency disease
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Cause and Effects of AIDS
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1. HIV infects Helper T-Cells
2. Patients are susceptible to any type of infection and cancer |
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What is an allergy?
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an inappropriate or excessive immune response to a normally harmless substance
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What are allergens?
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antigens that trigger an allergic reaction
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The four types of allergies (order matters)
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1. Food allergies
2. Incompatible blood transfusions 3. build-up of antigen-antibody complexes 4. Delayed hypersensitivity |
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Explain an Immediate (acute) Hypersensitivity
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1. most common type, will occur within 30 min
2. During the first exposure, there is no reaction but it causes excessive IgE antibodies to bind to mast cells and basophils 3. The mast cells detect the antigen and release their chemicals |
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What are the symptoms of immediate hypersensitivity caused by?
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vasodilation, vessel permeability, airway constriction
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What is Anaphylaxis?
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a circulating antigen that affects mast cells throughout the body (bee venom, penicillin)
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What is Anaphylactic shock?
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a sever, life-threatening allergic reaction that creates severe (bronchial) airway constriction and systemic vasodilation (sudden and extreme drop in BP)
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What is an antihistamine?
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blocks the actions of histamines
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What good are epinephrine injectors?
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dilates bronchioles and increases cardiac output
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Explain a type IV allergy
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1. activated T-cells and macrophages cause a bunch of different responses
2. signs appear 12-72 hrs after |
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Examples of a type IV allergy
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poison ivy, graft rejection
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What is an antigen?
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any molecule that triggers an immune response
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What is an epitope?
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a piece or region of the antigen that triggers it
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What are the Four Characteristics of Special Immunity?
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1. Specificity
2. Versatility 3. Memory 4. Tolerance |
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Explain the specificity aspect of special immunity
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the immunities detect very specific amino acid sequences
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Explain the versatility aspect of special immunity
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millions of variations are each capable of detecting a different specific sequence
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Explain the memory aspect of specific immunity
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variations that successfully detect a foreign antigen are maintained in order to provide faster and stronger response to repeat infections
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Explain the tolerance aspect of specific immunity
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it ignores the "self" while detecting "non-self" antigens
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What are the two branches of Specific Immunity?
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1. Cell-mediated (cellular) immunity
2. Antibody-Mediated (Humoral) Immunity |
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What is the agent for cell-mediated immunity?
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Cytotoxic T-cells
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What is the type of destruction in Cellular Immunity
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Direct
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What is Cell-mediated immunity effective against?
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1. infected human cells
2. cancer cells 3. transplanted cells |
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What does cellular immunity recognize in order to act?
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epitopes that are presented
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What is the agent for Humoral Immunity?
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Antibodies from B-cells
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What is the type of destruction in Anti-body mediated immunity?
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Indirect (antibodies tag the targets)
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What is the humoral immunity effective against?
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1. extracellular pathogens
2. non-cellular pathogens 3. Mismatched blood |
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What does antibody-mediated immunity recognize to begin?
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Intact epitopes/antigens
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What type of immunity are T-Cells apart of?
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Cell-mediated immunity
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Where are T-cells produced?
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red bone marrow
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Where are T-cells trained (or matured)?
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thymus
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Every T-cell has a different _____
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T-cell receptor
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How are T-cells "trained"?
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If a T-cell receptor matched with a "self-cell" it is destroyed. Only 2% make it.
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What happens to T-cells after their training?
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They get sent to the lymphatic tissues to monitor the blood
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What are the types of T-cells?
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1. Cytotoxic T-cells
2. Helper T-cells 3. Regulatory T-cells 4. Memory T-cells |
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Other names for cytotoxic T-cells
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killer T-cells or CD8+ T-cells or T(subscript "c")
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Other names for Helper T-cells
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T(subscript "H") or CD4+ T-cells
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What is the role of cytotoxic T-cells?
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secrete proteins that kill any human cell that matches with their receptor
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What are the roles of the Helper T-cells?
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1. attract macrophages, neutrophils, and NK cells
2. stimulate T-cell multiplication 3. Activate B-cells |
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What is the other name for regulatory T-cells?
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T-regs
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What is the role of regulatory T-cells?
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secrete signals to inhibit T and B cell multiplication
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What is the role of Memory T-cells?
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stick around in case the problem comes back. They can survive up to 10-20 years
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What are T-cells "restricted" to?
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MHC protein
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What does MHC protein stand for?
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Major histocompatibility complex
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What are MHC proteins?
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1. cell surface proteins that signify what is inside of them
2. they display the epitopes (flagpole or hotdog analogy) |
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What are the classes of MHC protein?
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MHC-I and MHC-II
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What cell types have MHC-I proteins?
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all nucleated cells
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which type of MHC protein do nucleated cells have?
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MHC-I
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Which type of cell has MHC-II?
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Antigen-presenting cells
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what type of MHC protein do antigen-presenting cells have?
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MHC-II
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What is the source of epitopes that MHC-I contain?
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Epitopes from any protein made inside the cell
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What is the source of epitopes that MHC-II contains?
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Epitopes from engulfed proteins
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What implications can be made because of what we know about MHC restrictions?
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The only cells that can be attaked are human cells (bacteria cant be attacked by T-cells)
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Describe the T-cell "Immune response" or "clonal selection theory"
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1. Millions of T-cells are produced
2. Each clone has a T-cell receptor that recognizes a different epitope 3. if a T-cell receptor recognizes a MHC+Epitope, the clone is activated and it begins multiplication, forming memory T-cells, and performing its role |
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which type of immunity are B-cells part of?
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Antibody-mediated immunity
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What is the structure of antibodies?
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A "Y" shaped protein
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What is the hypervariable region?
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the branches of the "Y" shape of antibodies, they are different for every cell
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What is the Antigen-binding site of an antibody?
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at the tips of antibodies, they bind to epitope of an antigen molecule
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What is the constant region of an antibody?
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The handle of the "Y", determines the antibodies function
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Antibodies can bind an epitope while still ____, wherever _____
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part of the whole protein, it is exposed on a cell surface
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Where are B-cells produced?
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red-bone marrow
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Where are B-cells trained?
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red-bone marrow
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How are B-cells matured?
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1. Millions are produced
2. Each clone has a different antibody, and it is the same one for life 3. Each B-cell has a B-cell receptor, which is an antibody on the surface of the cell bound by the membrane. It is expressed by the B-cell until immune reaction |
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Where are B-cells sent after maturation?
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The lymphatic tissue
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What are the two main steps of the B-cell immune response?
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1. Sensitization
2. Activation |
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Explain the step of sensitization (B-cells)
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1. B-cell receptor binds to a target epitope (IF)
2. B-cell pulls in the antigen (Endocytosis) 3. Digests the Antigen 4. B-cell displays epitopes on MHC-II 5. waits for approval from the Helper T-cell |
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Explain the step of activation (B-cells)
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1. If CD4+ T-cells recognizes the MHC-II and Epitope (the B-cell didn't digest itself)
2. Helper T-cell activates the B-cell 3. Activated B-cell multiplies into 2 subtypes |
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What are the two subtypes that an activated B-cell multiplies into?
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1. Plasma Cell- B cells that are releasing antibodies from their membranes
2. Memory B cell- clones of the originial B cell |
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Difference between a B-cell and a plasma B-cell
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B-cell uses its antibodies to attach and digest, and a plasma B-cell releases its antibodies
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How do antibodies work?
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1. neutralization
2. Agglutination 3. Aid phagocytosis 4. Activate Complement |
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what is the neutralization step in the antibody's role?
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bind and prevents virus or toxin from attacking a cell
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what is the agglutination step in the antibody's role?
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bind two antigens and "cross-link"
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what is the aid phagocytosis step in the antibody's role?
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coats the surface to make it easier to digest
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Activated B-cells keep the same _____ but can change ______
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1. Hypervariable Region
2. Constant Region (They cannot change what they bind to, but their role and location in the body can change) |
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Are there different classes of antibodies?
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Yes, they have various roles and locations in the body
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What is a primary response?
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the first exposure to an antigen. It is slow-developing and short
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What is a secondary response?
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A memory cell recognizes foreign object directly. It is much stronger, faster, and longer
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What are the types of specific immunity?
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Active and Passive
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What is active immunity and what are the types?
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follows an exposure to the antigen:
1. Natural- you get the disease 2. Artificial- you get a shot with a dead version |
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What is passive immunity and what are the types?
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transfer of antibodies from an outside source:
1. Natural- Breast-feeding from mother passes on antibodies 2. Artificial- anti-venom, RHoGam |
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What is endocytosis?
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B-cells absorbing molecules by engulfing them
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What do monocytes become after one day?
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macrophages
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What are lysozymes released by?
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Neutrophils and eosinophils
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What are lysozymes reactions apart of?
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respiratory burst
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