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65 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Bone density changes over life in men vs women |
Slow downhill starts at age 35 for both genders Women start a steep downhill at age 50-70 |
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Factors that can decrease bone density in women |
Predisposing factors: lack of exercise, nutrition, etc. Post-menopause intervention can slow the decrease of bone density |
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The Role Bones Play |
- support - sites for muscle attachment - protective covering for organs and other stuff - storage medium and buffer for calcium in the blood, helps maintain homeostasis in the blood - Contains bone marrow (red in flat ones -> hemopoietic tissue, yellow in longer bones -> made of fat) |
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Ways bones can be classified
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Type of bone tissue (compact or spongy/trabecular) - compact towards periphery and spongy towards the middle General morphology of bone - long bones - short bones (wrist) - flat bones (sternum, skull, hip) - irregular (vertebrae) - sesamoid (patella, embedded in a tendon) |
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Compact bones: the osteon |
Cylinder made up of ringed layers with blood vessels in the central canal (each osteon has its own blood supply) Layer of collagen fibers is oriented perpendicular to the previous layer - strengthens osteons by not allowing cracks to propogate across bones |
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Components of the Axial skeleton |
Skull Vertebral column Bony thorax (rib cage) NOT shoulder or clavicle - Pectoral girdle, appendicular skeleton NOT hips - Pelvic girdle, appendicular skeleton |
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Skull - general function - how the bones of the skull are joined together, type of joints - function of foraminae |
Functions of the skull: - protection - shape of skull distributes force across the shell, making it stronger than a box shape Bones in the skull joined by sutures: - fibrous joints - synarthrodial joints (bone meets bone, little to no movement) Foramina - need so nerves and muscles can get into and out of the brain |
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True vs False Foramen
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True foramen - completely enclosed by bone False foramen - not completely bordered, might be a notch that is completed by a ligament or disc |
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Bones of the skull: Cranial bones vs facial bones |
- Cranial bones contribute to the cranial cavity, all other skull bones are facial bones - some cranial bones contribute to the face |
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The 8 cranial bones - which are paired and which are unpaired |
Paired: - parietal - temporal Unpaired: - frontal - occipital - sphenoid - ethmoid |
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Bones of the cranium - where mastoid and styloid processes are found and function - cavities that ethmoid bone contributes to - Pterion |
- both on temporal bone, lots of both types of processes in the body so need to be specific. Function is for attachment of ligaments and muscles - ethmoid forms superior roof of nasal cavity, cranial floor - Pterion: point at which many cranial bones join together: sphenoid, temporal, parietal, frontal - point of weakness because it is a joint involving multiple bones - aka boxer's temple - middle meningeal artery is right underneath, supplies blood to meninges, if this is damaged by a big blow to the pterion you could bleed out and die |
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Lacrimal bone: function of lacrimal fossa |
- looks like a thumb print in the bone - where lacrimal gland is - lacrimal foramen in the fossa allows the tear duct to pass through and to the nasal cavity - lacrimal gland removes fluid from eye, through tear duct into nasal cavity - runny nose when we cry |
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Which bones contribute to your hard palate (roof of your mouth)? |
Bottom of palatine bones Maxilla |
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What helps increase surface area in the nasal cavity? Function of concha bones |
- air sacs and sinuses in the ethmoid (from superior and middle concha?) - perpendicular plate of ethmoid (joints to vomer) Concha and extensions off ethmoid are all lined with mucus membrane, increased likelihood that air will run across the membrane to be warmed, moistened, filtered - without them, mucus membrane would be on the periphery and air would be in dead space in the center |
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What forms the septum in the nose? |
Vomer and perpendicular plate of ethmoid |
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Paired facial bones Unpaired facial bones |
Paired facial bones: Maxilla Zygomatic bones Nasal bones Lacrimal bones Palatine bones Unpaired facial bones: Vomer, mandible |
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Bones that are not considered facial bones |
Hyoid bone - behind jaw, lower than skull Ossicles in middle ear: malleus, incus, stapes - to get to them: through external acoustic meatus, through ear canal to tympanic membrane. On other side the tympanic membrane is attached to first ossicle (malleus) - ossicles attached to cochlea (inner ear), moves fluid inside the cochlea, transmits to nerves then brain |
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Cranial fossa |
Anterior fossa (top step) - houses frontal lobe Middle fossa (middle step) - houses temporal lobes Posterior fossa (bottom step) - houses cerebellum and brain stem |
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Foramen of the skull and other structures in the cranial floor |
Anterior fossa - Cribriform Plate: top of ethmoid bone, top of nasal cavity. small holes - neural receptors move through to nasal cavity - Olfactory bulbs: sit on cribriform plate, extension of olfactory nerve - Crista Galli: centre of cribriform plate, prominence like rooster's comb. Attachment for the falx cerebri (ligament that anchors brain inside cranial cavity) Lesser wing of sphenoid bone: - Optic foramen: optic nerve (cranial nerve) exits skull - Sella turcica: small pocket in the bone, protects pituitary gland Middle fossa Greater wing of the sphenoid bone - Foramen rotundum: maxillary nerve exits through - Foramen ovale: mandibular nerve exits through (chewing, closing of jaw) - Foramen spinosum: middle meningeal artery runs through, feeds layers around brain, injury can cause subdural hematoma -> pressure on brain - Foramen Lacerum: ascending pharyngeal artery runs through, usually covered by a membrane Between Middle and Posterior fossa - Jugular foramen: cranial nerves 9-11 run through it, and jugular vein as well (collects blood that has been used by the brain) Posterior fossa - Foramen Magnum: brain stem leading to spinal cord exits
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12 Cranial nerves
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I Olfactory nerve II Optic Nerve III Oculomotor nerve IV Trochlear nerve V Trigeminal nerve VI Abducens nerve VII Facial nerve VIII Vestibulocochlear nerve IX Glossopharyngeal nerve X Vagus nerve XI Accessory nerve XII Hypoglossal nerve They exit directly from the brain, exclusive from the spinal cord On Old Olympus' Towering Top, A Finn And German Viewed Some Hops |
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Fissures in the skull |
Superior orbital fissure
Inferior orbital fissure - continuous with one another - cranial nerves exit from these (Trochlear nerve (IV), Superior division of the oculomotor nerve (III), Abducens nerve (VI)) - these nerves important for external eye muscles |
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Anterior view of vertebral column vs Lateral view
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Anterior view: nice straight column, looks stable Lateral view: curved, unstable, but allows for mobility |
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Curvatures of the vertebral column |
- Cervical curvature: concave from posterior view and convex from anterior view
- Thoracic: convex from posterior view and concave from anterior view - Lumbar: concave from posterior view (like cervical) - Sacralcoccygeal: convex from posterior view (like thoracic) |
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Primary vs Secondary curvatures |
Primary curvatures: exist at birth. Thoracic and sacrococcygeal (convex from posterior view, concave from anterior view)
Secondary curvatures: form after birth. Cervical and lumbar curvatures - cervical forms when baby holds head up straight - lumbar forms when you start walking |
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Kyphosis Lordosis Scoliosis |
Kyphosis: exaggerated thoracic curvature, hunchback. Often in elderly individuals Lordosis: Exaggeration of lumbar curvature. Often in young children, usually corrects itself Scoliosis: movement away from aligned view of spine from anterior view. Problems in lumbar and thoracic region |
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Features of a typical vertebra
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- Body/Centrum: large, thickened pad of bone, anterior. Bears most of weight, discs in between absorb much of compressive force
- Central Vertebral Foramen = Body + Vertebral arch - Spinous process: off vertebral arch - Paired transverse processes, very horizontal - Pedicles: 2, attach arch to the body - Lamina: 2, between spinous process and transverse process - Vertebral Arch = 2 Lamina + 2 Pedicles. For attachment of ligaments and muscles to support and move the spine - Superior/Inferior articular processes and facets: hyaline cartilage where bones articulate with each other. (Facet is a smooth part of hyaline cartilage, looks diff from bone) |
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Structures associated with typical vertebra
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- Vertebral Canal: created by many vertebrae in succession - Intervertebral foraminae: between each vertebrae, false foramen , where spinal nerves exit from the spinal cord - Intervertebral discs: between vertebrae. Made of nucleus pulposus (spongy cartilage centre, helps resist compressive forces), and annulus fibrosus (surrounding NP, made of organized fibers arranged in a manner that contains NP) |
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Herniated disc |
Exaggerated compressive force across the disc causes pulposus to squeeze out of disc (stepping on jelly donut) - small fibers grow into the disc, causes spinal nerves to sense pain -> sensing compressive forces across joint between two vertebrae (usually no nerves inside disc because would be overwhelming) Treatment: burn away the nerve fibers so they don't enter the pulposus region |
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Unique features of cervical vertebrae |
- bifurcated spine (cannot see laterally) - smaller bodies (don't bear as much weight, support only the head) - facets in superior and inferior articular processes (superior facet faces posterior, inferior facet faces anterior) - transverse foramen on transverse processes -> vertebral arteries pass through them (deep in skin and protected) - no inferior vertebral notch |
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Carotid artery vs. Vertebral Arteries |
Carotid artery is just underneath the skin, vertebral artery is deeper and protected - both feed into Circle of Willis (vascular network underneath the brain, feeds blood to the brain) - if you cut the carotid artery the brain is fine as long as you stop the blood loss, brain still receives blood from other routes like vertebral arteries |
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C1 vertebra (Atlas) |
- articulates with the skull - beside foramen magnum - superior articular processes and facets where occipital condyles (on occipital bone) nestle into - "yes" bone, allows skull to rock back and forth in the SA facets - no body, larger foramen |
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C2 vertebra (Axis) |
- no body - Dens - bone that sticks up and protrudes into the foramen of C1. Allows C1 to pivot off of C2, moving C1 and skull from side to side ("no" bone) - can have a lot of injury from the dens because the brain stem is right in front of it, if your neck snaps (whiplash, hit from behind) the dens can impact the brain stem - the transverse vertebral ligament is the only thing holding the dens in position within the vertebral foramen - not a great support |
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Unique features of thoracic vertebrae |
Has common features: lamina, pedicles - vertebral foraminae are almost perfectly round - heart shaped or kidney shaped bodies - articular processes are in the coronal plane -> when we stand up and laterally flex, the processes are gliding past each other - thoracic vertebrae articulate with ribs - on bodies of the thoracic vertebrae are two small facets that articulate with the heads of the ribs - superior and inferior costal facets (demifacets) - on transverse processes is transverse costal facet |
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How ribs articulate with the thoracic vertebrae |
- head of rib articulates almost right at the disc, facets of two vertebrae - Rib 1 only articulates with T1, and rib 2 only articulates with SCF T2 - Rib 3 articulates with ICF of T2 and SCF of T3, and transverse costal facet of T3 - Rib 9 articulates with T8 ICF and costal facet of T9 (only one costal facet on T9) - T10, 11 and 12 articulate with the rib of the same number via costal facets and transverse costal facets |
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Unique features of Lumbar vertebrae |
- located in the small of the back, bear a lot of weight, need thicker vertebrae - body is larger - vertebral foramina are more triangular, more resembling those of cervical vertebrae - vertebral arch is larger and higher - spinous process is larger and hatchet-like, more like a blade and less pointy - transverse processes are for muscles to attach to - superior and inferior articular facets are different shapes, tilted more towards sagittal plane, allows flexion and extension of the spine -> bend forward and facets glide across each other |
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Fused Vertebrae: Sacrum
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Sacrum - 5 vertebrae fused - discs have turned into solid bone, fusing the 5 vertebrae - intervertebral foramina are true foramina - at the top are superior articular processes/facets that articulate with inferior articular processes/facets on L5, they face posterior (helps orient) - spinous processes are also fused, ligaments that attach them turned to solid bone |
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Fused Vertebrae: Coccyx |
Tail bone: 3-5 bones fused into one - humans don't use it much, some animals use it for balance or self-defense - nerve attaches to the bottom, if you land on your tail bone and pinch this nerve it hurts a lot |
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Structures associated with the vertebrae: ligamentum |
- ligaments keep bones together, prevent shifts (spine is curved) - Supraspinous ligament: attaches spinous processes together and keeps them aligned, very long and thick - Anterior longitudinal ligament: wider like a band, down anterior bodies and keeps them aligned - Posterior longitudinal ligament: inside the vertebral column, attaches posterior side of bodies, keeps discs straight (both of these^ contain the discs and keep them contained, they are basically continuous with the annulus fibrosis which is just connective tissue.) - Interspinous ligament: short ligaments between spinous processes that attach 2 together - Ligamentum Flavum: short ligaments that attach the laminae together, yellowish |
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What makes up the rib cage? |
- Sternum (manubrium, body, xiphoid process) - 12 pairs of ribs - Costal cartilage |
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True vs false ribs |
True ribs: connect to sternum directly via costal cartilage - Ribs 1-7 False ribs: costal cartilage that goes indirectly to sternum or not at all - Ribs 8-10 attach to costal cartilage of Rib 7 and then go to sternum - Ribs 11-12 are floating ribs, no costal cartilage attached at all |
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Sternum
- on top of and below the manubrium - how landmarks of sternum line up with thoracic vertebrae - xiphoid process composed of? |
- on top of the manubrium: jugular notch - below the manubrium: sternal angle -> where body tilts upwards when we take a deep breath - jugular notch is level with T2 and T3, and aorta arches at that level (in between jugular notch and vertebrae) - sternal angle level with T4 and T5, and where top of the heart is - xiphisternal junction is level with T9, and where bottom of the heart is - xiphoid process is made up of hyaline cartilage but doesn't turn to bone until age 40 - a blunt force could break the xiphisternal junction and could potentially push it back to pierce the heart -> fatal |
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Typical rib features |
- Tubercles (1 or 2) in proximal part of rib. Neck is between head and tubercle. Tubercle articulates with transverse costal facet on thoracic vertebrae - angle of the rib - body of the rib is after angle, as rib flattens out - articular surfaces on head of the rib, articulate with superior/inferior costal facets on thoracic vertebrae? - bone part of rib ends at costochondral joint |
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Atypical ribs
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Rib 1: all angle, no shaft/body Rib 11 and 12 - floating ribs, much smaller (all angle as well?) (some people consider Rib 2 atypical) |
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Lower vs upper appendicular skeleton (structure and function) |
Lower appendicular skeleton has larger bones and sometimes fewer of them - bearing more weight - Upper for more movement and steering, lower for locomotion |
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Pectoral girdle - bones that make it up - structure and function |
Made up of scapula and clavicle - maximal mobility but not very strong joint - acromion process of scapula articulates to the clavicle - not to the axial skeleton directly - scapula moves a lot on the back of the rib cage - pectoral girdle attaches to axial skeleton via one joint: sternoclavicular joint |
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Ligaments that support the sternoclavicular joint |
- small fibrocartilage disc inside the joint -> absorbs force - Sternoclavicular ligament: on outside of the joint - Interclavicular ligament: connects two clavicles together, over jugular notch on manubrium - Costoclavicular ligament: anchors clavicle to the first rib |
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How to orient yourself with the clavicle, or how to tell the right from the left clavicle |
- superior surface is smooth, inferior surface is rough and rigid (it's where many ligaments attach, including the costoclavicular ligament) - medial end (articulates to manubrium of the sternum) is very square, has impression for the costoclavicular ligament - lateral end is very flat like a beaver's tail, and has conoid tubercle (for conoid ligament) |
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Subclavicular space and subclavian artery |
- clavicle is a border for the subclavicular space - in the subclavicular space is the subclavian artery and vein, amidst brachial plexus (entanglement of nerves) - function: bring blood to the upper limb and thorax - it immediately branches off of the aorta |
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Broken collar bone |
- most frequently broken bone - ligaments that anchor the clavicle to the sternum are more proximal, so as we move down the clavicle there are fewer supports -> this is where the bone tends to break - usually fractures at lateral (distal) third - bone can break through skin - if you see a bone pointing up there's something also pointing down - if you puncture your subclavian artery or vein it's not reparable - severing nerves of brachial plexus could cause you to lose movement of your upper limb |
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Scapula: notable features and function
- coracoid process - acromion process - glenoid fossa - 2 tubercles - spine - angles - subscapular fossa - suprascapular notch |
- Coracoid process: attaches to muscle and ligaments, does not articulate with bone - Acromion process: attaches to bone and ligaments, where the acromial end of the clavicle articulates to form the pectoral girdle - Glenoid fossa: where head of humerus artiuculates to form shoulder joint. Large head into small fossa, unstable joint, not really lock and key - easy to dislocate your shoulder - 2 Tubercles are above and below the glenoid fossa: infraglanoid tubercle and supraglenoid tubercle - attachment points for two important muscles - Spine separates infraspinous from supraspinous fossa, bleeds into acromion process - Superior and inferior angles are important attachment sites for ligaments and muscles - Subscapular fossa: lying on the ribcage, huge muscle attaches here - Suprascapular notch: important nerve runs through it |
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Humerus: notable features with function - head of humerus - deltoid tuberosity - bicipital groove - surgical neck vs anatomical neck - medial epicondyle |
- Head of humerus: very round, articulates with glenoid fossa of scapula - Deltoid Tuberosity: border for proximal vs distal humerus. About midway down the shaft. Deltoid muscle attaches here - Bicipital groove: runs between greater and lesser tubercle on head of humerus. Biceps muscle tendon runs through here. - Surgical neck is where bone typically breaks, at start of shaft. Anatomical neck is between head and tubercles. - Medial epicondyle: sticks out just above trochlea, aka funny bone. A nerve runs behind it, so when you whack the bone it puts pressure on the nerve and tingling in everywhere it innervates (also less prominent lateral epicondyle) |
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Distal humerus - anterior side, how the fossae line up with the tubercles and the ulna/radius and carpals |
- trochlea is on medial side, distal to coronoid fossa, above ulna - capitulum is on lateral side, distal to radial fossa, above radius. Radius articulates with lunate and scaphoid |
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Ulna and radius: notable features and function Ulna: - radial tuberosity - radial notch - trochlear notch - coronoid process Radius: - ulnar notch |
Ulna (medial bone) - Radial tuberosity: attaches to tendon of the biceps - Radial notch: notch cut out of head of ulna for head of the radius, where ulna and radius attach. Radial notch is on the lateral side of the ulna (can tell whether right or left ulna) - Trochlear notch: where trochlea fits - Coronoid process: fits into coronoid fossa Radius - Ulnar notch: cut out of distal end of radius (notches cut out of the larger bone in that area), where radius attaches to ulna |
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Supination and Pronation |
Supination: palm upwards in correct anatomical position, cupping soup - ulna and radius are parallel Pronation: palm downards - radius crosses over ulna Cannot do this in lower limbs, upper limbs made for movement and lower limbs made for stability |
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Adduction vs Abduction |
Adduction: bringing limbs closer to midline - closing fingers in the hand Abduction: moving away from midline |
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What makes up your palm? What is your knuckle? |
Palm: mostly metacarpals, bottom of palm is carpals Knuckles: distal end of metacarpals |
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The 8 Carpals |
Scaphoid: jelly-bean shaped, most frequently broken, articulates with radius Lunate: moon shaped, articulates with radius Triquetral 3 sided Pisiform: P-shaped, very small, sits on triquetral bone. Can only see from Palmar view. Sesamoid bone (embedded in a tendon) Trapezium: 4 sided, no parallel sides Trapezoid: 4 sided, 2 parallel sides Capitate: largest, rounded, looks like a small head Hamate: most medial, has a hook on it. forms the medial wall of the carpal tunnel |
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Carpal tunnel
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Valley formed by carpal bones - roof of tunnel formed by flexor retinaculum Inside the tunnel: - all the tendons that extend to the digits - other important structures Carpal tunnel syndrome: - tendons swell and puts pressure on other stuff in the tunnel, including nerve that innervates muscles in hand |
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Pelvic girdle - what makes it up - iliac crest and ASIS - pubic tubercle and pubic symphysis - obturator foramen - superior and inferior rami of pubis, ischial ramus - acetabulum - ischial tuberosity - ischial spine, greater sciatic notch, lesser sciatic notch |
Pelvic girdle made up of two hip bones articulating to sacrum - Anterior superior iliac spine is beginning of the crest, inferior version does not contribute but has an important muscle attachment - Pubic tubercle is lateral to the pubic symphysis (fibrocartilage disc) - Obturator foramen: very little goes through it, mostly covered by obturator membrane, true foramen - lots of muscles attach to the border - Rami create obturator foramen - Rami of pubis make part of foramen underneath the pubic tubercle - Acetabulum: impression, head of femur fits nicely into it, deeper and bigger than glenoid fossa on humerus - ilium, ischium and pubis all meet here - Ischial tuberosity: on posterior side of ischial ramus, attaches to lots of ligaments. We sit on it. - Ischial spine: above ischial tuberosity. Creates greater sciatic notch (sciatic nerve runs through it) and lesser sciatic notch |
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Male vs Female hip |
Male hip has narrower pubic arch |
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Femur: notable features and function - Head - Neck - Greater and lesser trochanter - Fovea capitis - Gluteal tuberosity - Linea aspera - adductor tubercle |
- Head: comes off long axis of bone at right angle, this angle widens our stance and makes us sturdier standing upright - many ligaments and muscles that help keep the head of the femur in the acetabulum - Neck: bears a lot of weight, often breaks in elderly individuals with osteoporosis - Greater and Lesser Trochanter: akin to tubercles of humerus but larger - Greater trochanter is lateral, Lesser trochanter is kind of medioposterior - Fovea capitis: looks like thumb print, impression on head of the femur - Gluteal tuberosity: posterior, proximal. Where gluteus maximus muscle attaches, start of linea aspera - Linea aspera: ridge that runs down posterior side of femur to distal end to adductor tubercle - lots of muscles attach here - Adductor tubercle: similar to medial epicondyle of distal humerus (funny bone) |
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Knee: structure and function |
- no lock and key - femoral condyles are rounded ends sitting on flat tibial plateau - means we can rotate the knee medially and laterally as well - don't have to always rely on muscles to keep the legs extended, would be tiring |
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Distal Femur and Proximal Tibia/Fibula
- Condyles of the tibia - fibula - tibial tuberosity - malleoli |
- Condyles of the tibia: wherever tibia interacts with the femur, hard to distinguish specifically. Better name is tibial plateau - Fibula: meant to stabilize the ankle. Proximal end interacts with tibia, distal end interacts with lateral side of tarsal bone. Fibula is always lateral side of leg. - Tibial tuberosity: anterior side, just down from proximal end of tibia - attachment for quadriceps muscle - on the growth plate of the tibia (long bone) - if children exercise a lot during growth stages of bones, quads can pull at growth plate, so tibial tuberosity grows and becomes exaggerated - Medial malleolus is on tibia and lateral malleolus is on fibula (cf. styloid processes of radius and ulna) |
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Ankle and Foot: notable features and functions - talus - calcaneous tuberosity/ Tuber calceni - sustenaculum tali - how to orient yourself |
- Talus: has facets on lateral and medial sides for the malleoli to articulate - Calcaneous tuberosity: prominent, proximal end of calcaneous - Sustenaculum tali: Talar shelf. where tendons run through to help support arches of foot, muscles here too. - how to orient: largest toe has largest bones |
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Arches of the foot - Name the 3 - function - what bones in the foot help create and support these arches |
Medial Longitudinal Arch (high) Lateral Longitudinal Arch (low) Transverse Arch (connects the two) Function: distribute weight of body across foot (like a bridge). Takes weight of body from back heel to lateral side of the foot and towards toes. - tarsal bones help create the arches - ligaments and muscles contracting help support the arches (moving helps the arches, not standing still) |
