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282 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Important vertebral marks of horizontal abdominal planes
-subcostal plane passes through L3 vertebra connecting the inferior portions (costal margins) of the thoracic cage

-intertubercular plane joins the tubercles of the iliac crests at the level of L5 vertebra
two vertical planes of abdomen location
-Two vertical planes join the midpoint of the clavicle with the mid-inguinal point
-The mid-inguinal point is found on a line joining the anterior superior iliac spine with the pubic symphysis
4 planes of abdomen divide into these 9 regions
1). Left hypochondriac
2). Epigastric
3). Right hypochondriac
4). Left lateral
5). Umbilical
6). Right lateral
7). Left inguinal
8). Pubic
9). Right inguinal
4 quadrant method of abdominal division
-use the median plane as the vertical plane and a transverse plane through the umbilicus (the transumbilical plane bisects the umbilicus at the level of L3-L4 intervertebral disc)
4 quadrants of abdomen
1). Right upper quadrant
2). Left upper quadrant
3). Right lower quadrant
4). Left lower quadrant
surface anatomy of abdomen
A. Linea semilunaris - lateral border of the rectus abdominis muscle
B. Inguinal groove - overlies the inguinal ligament
C. Iliac crest with its anterior superior iliac spine
D. Umbilicus - in midline at the level of L3-L4 intervertebral disc
E. Linea alba - in midline from xiphoid process to pubic symphysis
Cutaneous nerves of the abdominal wall
include the ventral primary rami of T7-L1. Included in this group are the following nerves:
A. Intercostal (T7-T11)
B. Subcostal (T12)
C. Iliohypogastric (L1)
D. Ilioinguinal (L1)
Camper's fascia location
- the outer fatty layer just deep to the skin
Scarpa's fascia
- the inner membranous layer which is continuous with the fascia lata of the thigh, the superficial perineal fascia, and the investing fascia of the penis and scrotum
- this deep fascia covers the muscles of the anterior abdominal wall and lies immediately deep to Camper's fascia
orientation of external abdominal oblique fibers
inferomedially
Contribution to inguinal ligament from external abdominal oblique
inferior border of external abdominal oblique forms the inguinal ligament
Superficial inguinal ring characteristics
-formed by an opening in external abdominal oblique's aponeurosis, surrounded by the medial and lateral crura

-opening transmits the spermatic cord in the male and the round ligament of the uterus in the female
Orientation of fibers internal abdominal oblique
superomedial, transverse and inferomedial
cremasteric muscle characteristics
- surrounds the spermatic cord in the male
-formed by the inferior fibers of the internal abdominal oblique
-elevates testes to maintain temperature
Actions of abdominal muscles
1. Flex the trunk
2. Tense the abdominal wall, increasing intra-abdominal pressure
3. Depress (lowers) the ribs
4. Stabilize the pelvis during walking
Rectus sheath fxn
- surrounds rectus abdominis on anterior and posterior surfaces
anterior wall of rectus sheath formation
-Superior to the arcuate line the anterior wall of this sheath is formed by the deep fascia of external and internal abdominal oblique
-inferior to the arcuate line the anterior wall is formed by the deep fascia of all three layers of abdominal muscles.
posterior wall of rectus sheath formation
-Superior to the arcuate line the posterior wall of the rectus sheath is formed by the deep fascia of the internal abdominal oblique and transversus abdominis
-inferior to the arcuate line the posterior wall is formed by the transversalis fascia only
Blood Supply of abdominal wall
Superior epigastric artery and vein (from the internal thoracic vessels) - seen on the deep surface of the rectus abdominis.

Inferior epigastric artery and vein - a branch of the external iliac artery; seen on the deep surface of the rectus abdominis; anastomoses with the superior epigastric vessels.
Lymphatics of abdominal wall
-area superior to the umbilicus drains to the axillary nodes

-area inferior to the umbilicus drains to the inguinal nodes.
Internal surface of Anterior Abdominal Wall features
A. Falciform ligament - located in the midline superior to the umbilicus; attaches the liver to the anterior abdominal wall. It contains the ligamentum teres (obliterated umbilical vein).
B. Lateral umbilical folds - contain the inferior epigastric vessels.
C. Medial umbilical folds - cover the medial umbilical ligaments (obliterated umbilical arteries).
D. Median umbilical fold - covers the median umbilical ligament.
Contents in the male inguinal canal
include the ilioinguinal nerve plus the spermatic cord, which contains the following structures:
1. Vas deferens (ductus deferens)
2. Artery of the vas deferens
3. Testicular artery
4. Pampiniform plexus (venous network)
5. Lymphatics
6. Genital branch of the genitofemoral nerve
Contents in the female inguinal canal
genital branch of the genitofemoral nerve
ilioinguinal nerve
round ligament of the uterus.
Clinical anatomy inguinal triangle
- different types of inguinal hernias are defined according to their relationship to the inguinal triangle

-direct inguinal hernia passes through inguinal triangle to enter inguinal canal
boundaries of inguinal triangle
A. Lateral - inferior epigastric vessels
B. Medial - lateral border of rectus abdominis
C. Inferior - inguinal ligament
inguinal hernia's clinical application
-Most are acquired vs congenital
-occur when a defect in the anterior abdominal wall develops, such that a loop or segment of the small intestine protrudes into the inguinal canal
-over time, the hernia may become more severe; the herniated bowel may eventually extend into the scrotal sac in the male, after passing through the superficial inguinal ring
-jobs which require lifting of heavy objects and/or increased intra-abdominal pressure predispose individuals to inguinal hernias
-Some pregnant women may develop inguinal hernias during labor and delivery, due to increased intra-abdominal pressure generated when "pushing" the child through the birth canal.
two types of hernias characteristics
-direct inguinal hernia passes through the inguinal triangle, medial to the inferior epigastric vessels, to penetrate the posterior wall of the inguinal canal
- the more common indirect hernia, passes through the deep inguinal ring lateral to the inferior epigastric vessels
-Inguinal hernias are three times more common in men than in women, while femoral hernias are more frequent in women than men.
clinical significance of linea alba
-no major blood vessels or nerves maintained within
-no muscle that needs to heal
-excellent place for incision
peritoneum characteristics
- formed by a single layer of squamous epithelium on a thin layer of connective tissue; it consists of two portions which are continuous
-parietal peritoneum lines the abdominal walls
-visceral peritoneum covers the abdominal organs
peritoneal cavity characteristics
-lined everywhere with peritoneum, and is moistened with peritoneal (serous) fluid
-peritoneal cavity between the visceral and parietal peritoneum is a potential space
-Except for the peritoneal fluid, it is completely empty, except when air is admitted at surgery or when excess fluid (ascites) or pus accumulates
most important fxns of the peritoneum
(1) to produce peritoneal fluid
(2) to minimize friction
(3) to resist infection
-provides a very slippery surface that permits free movement of the abdominal viscera
-produces fluid and cells in response to injury or infection, and tends to wall off or localize infection.
lesser fxns of peritoneum
storage of fat, especially in the greater omentum
divisions of peritoneal cavity
- the peritoneal cavity is composed of two divisions, which are continuous
-smaller of these divisions is known as the omental bursa (lesser sac) located posterior to the lesser omentum, stomach, and caudate lobe of the liver
- closed off from the major peritoneal cavity (greater sac) except for the communication through the epiploic foramen
epiploic foramen bordered by
(1) anteriorly, by the hepatoduodenal ligament
(2) superiorly, by the reflection of peritoneum from the liver (caudate lobe) onto the front of the inferior vena cava
(3) inferiorly, by the duodenum
(4) posteriorly, by parietal peritoneum covering the inferior vena cava
mesentary characteristics
-double-layered membrane of peritoneum
-provides a channel through which vessels, nerves and lymphatics travel to reach various organs
-The mesentery is attached to the posterior abdominal wall where the blood and nerve supply to the abdominal viscera originates
omentum characteristics
- a mesentery extending from the stomach to adjacent organs.
1. Lesser omentum - joins the lesser curvature of the stomach and 1st part of the duodenum with the liver.
2. Greater omentum - joins the greater curvature of the stomach with the transverse colon
ligaments of peritoneum
all other double layers or folds of peritoneum not known as mesenteries or omenta
peritoneal recesses characteristics
blind pouches or tubular spaces opening into the peritoneal cavity
Boundaries of the peritoneal (abdomino-pelvic) cavity
1. Anterior - anterior abdominal wall
2. Posterior - posterior abdominal wall
3. Superior - respiratory diaphragm
4. Inferior - pelvic diaphragm
length of esophagus
extends 1" below the respiratory diaphragm
cardiac notch of esophagus fxn
separates the esophagus from the fundus of the stomach
Inferior esophageal sphincter characteristics
-respiratory diaphragm effectively closes the inferior portion of the esophagus

-no anatomical sphincter in the esophageal wall where it joins the stomach
volume of stomach
2 to 4 liters (quarts)
parts of stomach
1. Fundus - superior to the cardiac orifice (junction with the esophagus), at the level of the 5th rib; rests against the left side of the diaphragm.
2. Body - portion between the fundus and pylorus.
3. Pylorus - between the body of the stomach and the duodenum
parts of pylorus
a. Pyloric antrum - wider portion of the pylorus
b. Pyloric canal - narrow, distal portion of the pylorus
c. Pyloric sphincter - normally closed; regulates the flow of food into the duodenum.
external features of stomach
1. Greater curvature - seen on the inferior border; 4-5 times greater in length than the lesser curvature. Greater omentum attaches here.
2. Lesser curvature - seen on the superior border. Lesser omentum attaches here.
spleen characteristics
A. Lymphatic organ in the left upper quadrant
B. Gastrolienal ligament - connects the hilum of the spleen with the greater curvature of stomach.
C. Lienorenal ligament - connects the hilum of the spleen with the left kidney.
general characteristics of duodenum
1. Shaped like a horseshoe; molded around the head of the pancreas
2. Length - 10"
3. Joins the pylorus to the jejunum
4. Most fixed part of the small intestine - last 9" is retroperitoneal
5. Connects with the common bile duct and pancreatic ducts; physiologically, the most important part of the small intestine
1st part of duodenum length and course
1. Length - 1" (most mobile part); it is not retroperitoneal

2. Course - superior, posterior and to the right
2nd part of duodenum length and course
1. Length - 3 to 4"
2. Course - parallel and to the right of the inferior vena cava
2nd part of duodenum contents
Contains the hepatopancreatic ampulla (of Vater) - formed by the union of the common bile duct and the pancreatic duct.
Contains the major duodenal papilla and sphincter of Oddi; located 3-4" distal to the pyloric sphincter. The main pancreatic duct opens at the major duodenal papilla and the accessory pancreatic duct opens at the minor duodenal papilla
3rd part of duodenum length and course
1. Length - 4"
2. Course - transverse (crosses midline) from right to left
4th part of duodenum length and course
1. Length - 1"
2. Course - ascends to the left side of the aorta
4th part of duodenum features
3. Duodenojejunal junction or flexure (a sharp bend occurs where the duodenum joins the jejunum).
4. Ligament of Treitz - suspensory muscle attaches the 4th part of the duodenum to the posterior abdominal wall; functions to widen the opening of this portion of the duodenum
pancreas location
- retroperitoneal, just posterior to the omental bursa
parts of pancreas
1. Head - lies in the concavity of the duodenum
2. Neck - indistinct; joins the head to the body and overlies the superior mesenteric artery.
3. Body
4. Tail - located between the two layers of the lienorenal (splenorenal) ligament. Its tip is related to the hilum of the spleen.
main pancreatic duct characteristics
-begins in the tail and is usually joined by the accessory duct in the head
-contains the sphincter of the main pancreatic duct, which prevents bile from entering the pancreas
accessory pancreatic duct characteristics
if it does not join the main duct, then it has a separate opening in the duodenum located at the minor papilla
hepatopancreatic ampulla characteristics
formed by the union of the common bile duct and the main pancreatic duct. Associated with the sphincter of Oddi and the major duodenal papilla.
size of liver
5% of body weight in infants; 2% of body weight in adults
location of liver
- upper right quadrant or epigastric and right hypochondriac regions
fxns of liver
produces bile
processes nutrients absorbed by the GI tract
detoxifies xenobiotic chemicals
phagocytosis of worn out blood cells
general features of liver
1. diaphragmatic surface
2. visceral surface
3. porta hepatis
4. left sagittal fissure
5. right sagittal fissure
6. right lobe
7. left lobe
diaphragmatic surface of liver characteristics
conforms to the concavity of the diaphragm; it is covered by peritoneum except where it is in direct contact with the diaphragm (bare area of liver). Inferior vena cava is in direct contact with this surface.
visceral surface of liver characteristics
- covered with peritoneum except where the gall bladder and porta hepatis are located
porta hepatis location and contents
- a transverse fissure in the visceral surface
-hepatic portal vein
hepatic artery proper
nerve plexus
hepatic (bile) ducts
lymphatic vessels
left sagittal fissure of liver location and contents
- in the visceral surface; contains the ligamentum teres (obliterated umbilical vein)
right sagittal fissure of liver location and contents
in the visceral surface; contains the gall bladder and inferior vena cava.
right lobe of liver characteristics
larger than the left lobe; includes the quadrate and caudate lobes which are separated by the porta hepatis
left lobe of liver characteristics
smaller than the right lobe; it is separated from the right lobe by the falciform ligament
coronary ligaments characteristics
represent a reflection of visceral peritoneum from the liver to the respiratory diaphragm, surrounding the bare area of the liver
parts of Lesser Omentum characteristics
1. Hepatogastric ligament - passes from the porta hepatis of the liver to the lesser curvature of stomach.
2. Hepatoduodenal ligament - passes from the porta hepatis of the liver to the first part of duodenum; its contains the proper hepatic a., hepatic portal v., common bile duct, lymphatic vessels and hepatic nerves
biliary system pathway
-begins as microscopic bile canaliculi which collect bile from individual liver cells
-canaliculi merge to form interlobular bile ducts which merge to form the right and left hepatic ducts (drain the two lobes of the liver)
-these two ducts merge to form the common hepatic duct, which joins the cystic duct to form the common bile duct
-common bile duct contains a sphincter which prevents pancreatic secretions from entering the biliary system
gall bladder fxn and characteristics
- stores and concentrates bile
1. Shaped like a pear
2. Size is 1-2 ounces
3. Peritoneal covering - present on its posterior and inferior surfaces
parts of gall bladder
a. Fundus - projects below the inferior border of the liver.
b. Body - contacts the visceral surface of liver.
c. Neck - narrow and tapered; "S-shaped"; contains a spiral mucosal fold which keeps the lumen open
beginning of jejunum
-jejunum begins at the duodenojejunal junction
termination of ileum
-ileum terminates at the ileocecal valve
gradual transitions in anatomical features throughout the course of jejunum and ileum
A. The jejunum possesses well developed mucosal folds (plicae circulares) which diminish in size from proximal to distal (they are completely absent in the distal ileum).

B. amount of fat in the mesentery increases from proximal to distal.

C. number of arterial arcades in the mesentery increases from proximal to distal.
jejunum and ileum shared attachment and combined length
-both attached to the mesentery

-combined length varies from 19-23 feet

-proximal 2/5's is defined as the jejunum while the distal 3/5's is defined as the ileum
beginning of large intestine and its combined length
- begins at the ileocaecal junction, which contains the ileocecal valve

- combined length is approximately 5 feet
external characteristics of large intestine
-three external, longitudinal bands of smooth muscle (tenia coli)

-sacculations (haustra)

-appendices epiploicae, which store fat.
characteristics of caecum
-a blind sac with the appendix attached

-caecum is continuous with the ascending colon, which is 8-10" long.
right paracolic gutter location
lateral to the ascending colon
ascending colon characteristics
-defined as a retroperitoneal organ

-becomes continuous with the transverse colon at the right colic (hepatic) flexure.
transverse colon characteristics
-10-14" long, is suspended by the transverse mesocolon

-transverse colon becomes continuous with the descending colon at the left colic (splenic) flexure
left paracolic gutter location
lateral to the descending colon
descending colon characteristics
-continuous with the sigmoid colon at the brim of the pelvis

-retroperitoneal organ.
sigmoid colon characteristics
- "S-shaped"
-averages 12" in length
-suspended by the sigmoid mesocolon
-becomes continuous with the rectum at the level of S3 vertebra.
rectum characteristics
-resides entirely in the pelvis, has no mesentery and is approximately 5" long

-continuous with the anal canal, the terminal part of the intestinal tract.
anal canal characteristics
-approximately 1½" long and is surrounded by two anal sphincters
-internal anal sphincter is composed of smooth muscle and is under involuntary control (pelvic splanchnic nerves, S2-S4)
-external anal sphincter is composed of skeletal muscle and is under conscious control via the inferior rectal nerve (a branch of the pudendal nerve)
paired branches of abdominal aorta
1. Inferior phrenic
2. Subcostal
3. Renal
4. Middle suprarenal
5. Ovarian or testicular
6. Lumbar (4 pairs)
7. Common iliac (terminal branches)
inferior phrenic artery supplies
respiratory diaphragm
subcostal artery supplies
- supply muscles and skin of the abdominal wall
renal artery supplies
- supply kidneys and suprarenal glands
middle suprarenal artery supplies
- supply suprarenal glands
ovarian or testicular arteries supply
- supply gonads
lumbar arteries supply
- supply the muscles and skin of the abdominal wall
unpaired branches of abdominal aorta
1. Celiac trunk
2. Superior mesenteric
3. Inferior mesenteric
4. Median sacral - on anterior surface of the sacrum
3 typical branches of celiac trunk
1. Left gastric
2. Splenic
3. Common hepatic
left gastric artery supplies
- supplies the esophagus and stomach

-anastomoses with the right gastric artery.
splenic artery characteristics
- supplies the spleen, pancreas and stomach
-Gives 5-7 short gastric branches to the fundus
-left gastroepiploic branch is found next to greater curvature
-its branches go to the stomach and greater omentum
-Eventually, it anastomoses with the right gastroepiploic
branches of common hepatic artery
-right gastric
-gastroduodenal
-hepatic
-right gastroepiploic
-superior pancreaticoduodenal
right gastric artery supplies
the pylorus
gastroduodenal artery supplies
supplies the pylorus and pancreas
proper hepatic artery supplies
supplies the liver and gall bladder (via the cystic artery)
right gastroepiploic supplies
supplies the stomach and greater omentum
superior pancreaticduodenal artery supplies
supplies the pancreas and duodenum
superior mesenteric artery branches
1. Jejunal and ileal arteries
2. Ileocolic artery
3. Right colic artery
4. Middle colic artery
jejunal and ileal arteries characteristics
- 12 to 15 vessels in the mesentery. Each divides into two vessels which unite with the adjacent artery to form arches (arterial arcades)
ileocolic artery characteristics
- superior branch supplies the ascending colon, eventually anastomosing with the descending branch of the right colic artery

-inferior branch supplies the ascending colon, cecum, appendix and ileum.
right colic artery characteristics
- its descending branch anastomoses with the ileocolic

-ascending branch supplies the ascending colon and eventually anastomoses with the middle colic artery.
middle colic artery characteristics
- supplies the transverse colon
-right branch anastomoses with the right colic artery
left branch anastomoses with the left colic artery.
inferior mesenteric artery branches
1. Left colic artery
2. Sigmoid arteries
3. Superior rectal artery
left colic artery characteristics
- ascending branch supplies the descending colon and anastomoses with the middle colic artery

-descending branch supplies the descending colon and anastomoses with the highest sigmoid artery.
sigmoid arteries characteristics
- usually 2 to 3 vessels supply the distal descending colon and sigmoid colon

-Highest branch anastomoses with the left colic artery and lowest branch anastomoses with the superior rectal artery.
superior rectal artery characteristics
- supplies the rectum and anastomoses with the middle rectal and inferior rectal arteries
marginal artery of drummond characteristics
- a continuous vessel that courses along the inner perimeter of the colon, from the ileocolic junction to the rectum
-formed by the anastomotic connections of the ileocolic, right colic, middle colic, left colic and sigmoid arteries
hepatic portal system of veins drains
drains the spleen and the gastrointestinal tract supplied by the celiac, superior and inferior mesenteric arteries
hepatic portal vein formed by
formed by the union of the superior mesenteric and splenic veins; the inferior mesenteric vein is usually a tributary of the splenic vein.
bifurcation of hepatic portal vein characteristics
-hepatic portal vein bifurcates into the right and left hepatic portal veins, which supply 75% of the total blood supply to the liver; the remaining 25% is supplied by the proper hepatic artery
hepatic veins drain
-The liver is drained by the hepatic veins which are tributaries to the inferior vena cava.
clinical anatomy hepatic portal system of veins
If venous circulation through these veins is slowly obstructed by liver disease, the portal blood may enter the inferior vena cava through alternate anastomotic veins. These veins will become dilated and varicosed; they may also hemorrhage. One common example of liver disease producing obstruction of hepatic portal blood flow is cirrhosis of the liver. Individuals suffering from this problem are often seen in the emergency room with profuse esophageal bleeding, requiring transfusion of MANY units of whole blood. This source of bleeding comes from ruptured varicose veins in the esophagus which have been irritated by swallowed food.
features of respiratory diaphragm
a. Central tendon
b. Muscular part
c. Crura (right and left)
d. Aortic hiatus
e. Vena caval hiatus
f. Esophageal hiatus
characteristics of kidneys
1. Size - 4½" long, 2½" wide, 1½" thick.
2. Cortex - outer layer of kidneys that contain nephrons, the functional filtration units.
3. Medulla - inner layer of kidneys that contain the collecting tubules.
4. Calyces - branches of the renal pelvis that drain urine.
5. Renal pelvis - expanded, funnel-shaped portion of the ureter.
6. Renal capsule – layer of fat surrounding each kidney and attaching it to the posterior abdominal wall
Ureters (retroperitoneal organs) fxn
highly muscular tubes (25-30 cm) which carry urine to the urinary bladder
relations of ureters
lie anterior to the psoas major and minor muscles and the iliac vessels. Located posterior to the renal and gonadal vessels
blood supply of ureters
renal
gonadal
common iliac
internal iliac
vesical
uterine
constrictions of ureter
a. At junction with the renal pelvis.
b. Where ureters cross the pelvic inlet (pelvic brim).
c. The intramural portion (where the ureters pass through the wall of the urinary bladder). At this location there is a “one-way” flap valve formed which prevents the retrograde flow of urine.
clinical anatomy ureter and kidney stones
Pain associated with the passage of a kidney stone in the ureters is referred to the inguinal region (T11-L1 spinal cord levels) because the ureters are supplied with pain fibers by sympathetic chain ganglia (T11-L1).
suprarenal glands characteristics
endocrine organs located immediately above the kidneys.
1. Size - 1"to 2" long.
2. Functions - cortex secretes steroid hormones that regulate mineral and water balance. The medulla releases epinephrine (adrenaline) into the blood stream when stimulated by preganglionic sympathetic fibers
arteries of suprarenal glands
a. Superior suprarenal arteries - from the inferior phrenic arteries; may be as many as 27 branches.
b. Middle suprarenal arteries - from the abdominal aorta; may have as many as 10 branches.
c. Inferior suprarenal arteries - from the renal arteries; may be as many as 30 branches.
veins of suprarenal glands
Suprarenal vein - one vessel leaving the hilum of the suprarenal gland. The right suprarenal vein drains into the inferior vena cava, while the left suprarenal vein drains into the left renal vein
origins respiratory diaphragm
xiphoid process, ribs 7-12, medial and lateral lumbocostal arches.
parts of respiratory diaphragm attachments
a. Sternal part – attached to xiphoid process.
b. Costal part – attached to ribs 7-12 (forms right and left domes).
c. Lumbar part – right and left crura attached to L1-L3 vertebra and the anterior longitudinal ligament
internal surface area trend from proximal jejunum to distal ileum
Internal surface area decreases from proximal jejunum to distal ileum
only two parts of large intestine that are retroperitoneal
ascending colon

descending colon
central tendon of diaphragm characteristics
aponeurosis (fuses with fibrous pericardium).
muscular part of diaphragm insertion
inserts on the central tendon of the diaphragm.
Crura of diaphragm characteristics
- right crus surrounds the esophageal hiatus (constricts when diaphragm contracts)

-left crus passes to the left of the esophageal hiatus.
aortic hiatus characteristics
-surrounded by the median arcuate ligament and the two crura of the diaphragm

-Transmits the aorta, thoracic duct and azygos vein.
vena caval hiatus transmits
inferior vena cava

part of the right phrenic nerve
Esophageal hiatus transmts
esophagus
anterior and posterior vagal trunks
left gastric artery and vein
skeleton of bony pelvis (pelvic girdle) consists of
os sacrum (sacrum)
os coccyges (coccyx or tailbone)
right and left os coxae (hip bones)
os coxae consists of and is fused by age
three bones (ilium, ischium and pubis), whose fusion is complete by age 17
articulation of os coxae
They articulate with each other anteriorly at the pubic symphysis. Posteriorly they articulate with the sacrum (first three sacral vertebrae) at the sacroiliac (SI) joints
subpubic angle characteristics
-measured as the distance between the ischial tuberosities

-In females it is >80 degrees (provide additional space necessary for birthing a child) and in males it is <70 degrees
composition of sacrum and age of completion
The sacrum is composed of five vertebrae whose fusion is complete by the 25th year
coccyx composition and articulation
The coccyx is composed of 3 to 5 vertebrae. The coccyx articulates with the sacrum at the sacrococcygeal symphysis, which contains a fibrocartilaginous disc
pelvic brim fxn and components
-dividing line that separtates pelvis minor (true pelvis) and pelvis major (false pelvis)
-bony structure composed of:
promontory of the sacrum
anterior border of the ala of the sacrum
iliopectineal line
pubic crest
superior surface of the pubic symphysis
bony boundaries of pelvis minor
sacrum
coccyx
inner surface of the ischium and pubis
small part of the ilium
Articulations of the bony pelvis
lumbosacral joint
sacrococcygeal joint
pubic symphysis
sacroiliac joint
The lumbosacral joint characteristics
-involves the intervertebral disc between L5 and the sacrum
-large size and greater anterior depth of this disc allows greater movement and contributes to the lumbar curve of the spine
The sacrococcygeal joint characteristics
occurs between S5 and the coccyx. This atypical intervertebral joint contains an intervertebral disc which allows for posterior movement of the coccyx during defecation or childbirth. Supraspinous and interspinous ligaments help stabilize this articulation
pubic symphisis characteristics
-located along the anterior midline between the two os coxae
-pubic bones are united by a fibrocartilaginous disc and numerous ligamentous fibers, including a strong arcuate (inferior pubic) ligament
The sacroiliac joint characteristics
is a synovial joint between the lateral surface of the sacrum (S1-S3) and the internal surface of the ilium, posterior to the iliac fossa. Several ligaments stabilize this joint, including the interosseous sacroiliac, posterior sacroiliac, iliolumbar, sacrotuberous and sacrospinous ligaments
pelvic diaphragm characteristics
-forms floor of the true pelvis and separates it from the perineum
-comprised of levator ani anteriorly and coccygeus posteriorly and their associated fascia
-pelvic diaphragm is perforated by the urethra and anal canal; in the female it is also perforated by the vagina
pelvic fascia characteristics
- continuous with the abdominal fascia where the two fasciae are anchored to the pelvic brim
-three continuous layers which are in contact with the (1) pelvic diaphragm (diaphragmatic fascia), (2) hollow pelvic organs (visceral fascia), and (3) the pelvic wall (parietal fascia)
retropubic space characteristics
-located between the pubic bones and anterior surface of the urinary bladder

-Contained in this space is a large amount of subserous fat, which allows for expansion of the urinary bladder
rectovesical space and fascia fxn
-separate the urinary bladder from the rectum in the male

-a peritoneal recess
rectum is surrounded by
by loose connective tissue which allows for expansion of the rectum before defecation
retrorectal space
potential space between the rectum and the sacrum
Ureters characteristics
-muscular tubes, about 10" long, enter the pelvis minor by passing over the pelvic brim just anterior to the internal iliac vessels
-travel posteroinferiorly, external to the parietal peritoneum, to lie above the levator ani as they approach the bladder
-enter the wall of the bladder at its posterosuperior angle; in the male, this angle is immediately above the seminal vesicles and inferior to the vas deferens
uninary bladder basic characteristics
-this sac is very expandable, containing three layers of smooth (detrusor) muscle in its walls

-Its size, shape, position and relationships vary with the amount of urine it contains.
mucosa of urinary bladder characteristic
quite loosely attached, except at the neck of the bladder (area known as the trigone)
location of urinary bladder
-located in the anteroinferior part of the pelvis minor, below the peritoneum, resting on the pelvic diaphragm
-As it fills, it ascends into the abdomen elevating its peritoneal covering with it
clinical application- bladder location for urinary sample
it would be possible to obtain a sample of urine from a filled bladder by inserting a hypodermic needle just above the pubic symphysis in the midline, without entering the abdominal cavity
characteristics of male pertioneum and bladder
-peritoneum is reflected from the bladder over the superior surface of the vas deferens and the seminal vesicles
-base of the bladder is its posterior surface, which in the male is separated from the rectum by the vas deferens and seminal vesicles
apex and neck of bladder in male characteristics
-apex of the bladder is at its anterior end, while the neck is indicated by the junction with the urethra
-neck rests upon the prostate gland
lateral surfaces of bladder surrounded by
The lateral surfaces of the bladder are surrounded by the vesical fascia which contains the vesical venous plexus
Male Urethra length
- has three parts, which total 6”to 8" in length
1st part of male urethra characteristics
-first passes through the prostate gland; the prostatic urethra is approximately 1" long
2nd part of male urethra characteristics
-membranous urethra, or second part, is 1 cm long

-passes through the muscular urogenital (UG) diaphragm.
3rd part of male urethra characteristics
The spongy (penile) urethra is the third part which passes through the bulb, body and glans of the corpus spongiosum penis. The penile urethra terminates at the external urethra orifice.
Vas (Ductus) Deferens characteristics
-a thick-walled muscular tube, which is the continuation of the epididymis
-ascends in the spermatic cord, passes through the inguinal canal and remains external to the parietal peritoneum as it approaches the urinary bladder
-ends by joining the duct of the seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct.
Seminal Vesicles characteristics
- this name is a misnomer, because these accessory sex glands do not store sperm cells
-produce seminal fluid (pH>7.0) which constitutes the majority of the semen
-These glands are coiled tubes approximately 6" long.
-found on the posterior surface of the bladder, between the vas deferens and prostate gland.
Ejaculatory Ducts characteristics
- formed by the union of the vas deferens and duct of the seminal vesicle near the neck of the bladder. They pass anteroinferiorly through the prostate gland to open in the prostatic urethra just lateral to the prostatic utricle
prostate gland characteristics
-largest accessory sex gland in the male; normally the size of a walnut
-prostatic secretion is a milky, alkaline fluid (pH>7.0) which comprises about one-third of the semen
-alkaline pH helps to neutralize the acidic fluid produced by the female reproductive tract (vagina).
fructose fxn in prostatic fluid
-carbohydrate contained within prostatic fluid

-provides an important source of energy to the sperm cells on their arduous journey to hopefully fertilize an ovum.
composition of prostate gland
-composed of glandular and fibromuscular tissue and surrounded by a dense fascial sheath
-conical in shape with a base (adjacent to neck of bladder); apex (adjacent to urogenital diaphragm); anterior, posterior and lateral surfaces
prostate gland clinical anatomy
- approximately 50% of all cancer in the male population of the United States originates in the prostate gland. Metastatic cells from a malignant tumor of the prostate gland may enter the prostatic venous plexus and travel to the cranial cavity via the vertebral venous plexus (Batson’s veins). A secondary, malignant tumor of the brain would likely be the result.
Bulbourethral Glands characteristics
-pair of pea-sized accessory sex glands located in the UG diaphragm just lateral to the membranous urethra
-ducts pass through the bulb of the penis to open into the proximal part of the spongy urethra
-produce a mucous secretion which is released just prior to ejaculation, for the purpose of lubricating the urethra
peritoneum of rectum
-upper (proximal) 1/3 is covered by peritoneum on its anterior and lateral surfaces

-the middle 1/3 is covered only on its anterior surface.
pararectal fossae (spaces on either side of rectum) fxn
permit the rectum to expand when it becomes distended with feces
anal canal upper half and inferior end characteristics
-upper half of the anal canal contains longitudinal folds known as anal columns
-superior ends of these columns indicate the location of the anorectal line, where the rectum joins the anal canal
-The inferior ends of these columns are joined by folds known as anal valves
anal sinuses characteristics
-small recesses superior to the anal valves

-Contained within these sinuses are glands which secrete mucous, which aid in defecation
At the junction of the anal columns with the anal valves is the
pectinate line
nerve fibers superior and inferior to pectinate line of anal canal
-Superior to this line the anal canal is supplied by visceral afferent fibers (GVA)
-inferior to this line the anal canal is supplied by somatic afferent fibers (GSA) derived from the inferior rectal nerves.
venous plexuses of anal canal characteristics
-internal rectal venous plexus is located in the wall of the proximal half of the anal canal; drains into hepatic portal system
-external rectal venous plexus is located in the wall of the distal half of the anal canal; drains into the internal pudendal veins which are tributaries to the caval system.
Internal Iliac Artery basic characteristics
- supplies the organs of the pelvic cavity

- usually described as having two divisions (anterior and posterior).
Posterior Division internal iliac artery branches
1. The lateral sacral arteries
2. The iliolumbar artery
3. The superior gluteal artery (the terminal branch)
lateral sacral arteries supply
(two or more vessels) enter the anterior sacral foramina to supply the structures of the sacral canal, but eventually exit the posterior sacral foramina to supply the muscles and skin posterior to the sacrum.
iliolumbar artery supplies
courses between the obturator nerve and the lumbosacral trunk to supply the iliacus muscle and lumbar region posterior to the psoas major muscle.
superior gluteal artery (the terminal branch) supplies
exits the greater sciatic foramen superior to the piriformis to supply the gluteal region
Anterior Division internal iliac artery branches
1.& 2. The umbilical artery (obliterated after birth) and the superior vesical artery
3. The inferior vesical artery
4. The middle rectal artery
5. The obturator artery
6. The internal pudendal artery
7. The inferior gluteal artery
8. The uterine artery
superior vesical artery supplies
the bladder
inferior vesical artery supplies
bladder
seminal vesicle
prostate
ureter
vas deferens
middle rectal artery supplies
rectum
prostate
seminal vesicle
vas deferens and vagina in the female.
obturator artery location
leaves the pelvis via the obturator canal to enter the thigh.
internal pudendal artery location
exits the pelvis via the greater sciatic foramen, loops around the spine of the ischium to enter the perineum via the lesser sciatic foramen (its branches include the inferior rectal artery and branches to the vagina).
inferior gluteal artery supplies
exits the greater sciatic foramen, inferior to the piriformis, to supply the gluteal region.
uterine artery supplies
supplies the uterus and vagina

ultimately anastomoses with the ovarian artery
Pelvic Veins characteristics
-correspond to the branches of the internal iliac artery
-Each pelvic organ has a venous plexus which freely communicates with the other venous plexuses
-have no valves and have important connections with the vertebral venous plexus (Batson’s veins)
iliolumbar ligament fxn
-stabilizes L5 on the sacrum by anchoring its transverse processes to the iliac crest, thus limiting forward motion of L5
posterior wall of prostatic urethra contains
-urethral crest (a long vertical ridge)
-two prostatic sinuses (lateral grooves where most prostatic ducts empty)
-seminal colliculus (rounded eminence of the crest)
-prostatic utricle (a cul-de-sac homologous to the uterus and vagina), and the openings of the ejaculatory ducts just lateral to the utricle
Within the neck of the bladder
-Within the neck of the bladder an internal urethral sphincter (smooth muscle) guards the opening (internal urethral orifice) of the urethra
-this sphincter prevents the retrograde flow of semen into the bladder during ejaculation
external urethral sphincter characteristics
-Contained within this UG diaphragm

-a voluntary muscle which surrounds the membranous urethra and relaxes only during urination and ejaculation
prostatic venous plexus characteristics
-On its lateral surfaces of prostate gland

-has connections with the vesical plexus and vertebral venous plexus (Batson’s veins).
skeleton of female bony pelvis characteristics
- the bony pelvis of the female is composed of the same bones as the male

-however, there are numerous genetic differences which are designed for childbearing and childbirth
female ureters relationship to uternine artery
pass medial to the origin of the uterine artery, to be crossed superiorly by this same artery
clinical application uterine artery
The ureter is in danger of being mistaken for the uterine artery during surgical removal of the uterus. If the ureter is accidently ligated, the patient is in danger of losing a kidney within 24-48 hours postoperatively.
urinary bladder in female characteristics
-peritoneum is reflected from the bladder to the uterus forming a vesicouterine pouch
-Normally this pouch is empty
-bladder is separated from the rectum by the uterine cervix and vagina
Female Urethra characteristics
- this muscular tube is approximately 1½" (4 cm) long. It passes anteroinferiorly, just in front of the vagina
-Its external urethral orifice is located in the midline between the labia minora, just posterior to the clitoris.
external urethral sphincter of female characteristics
-voluntary muscle that compesses urethra

-located in the urogenital diaphragm
Vagina characteristics
- a highly elastic, muscular tube that is 3-4" long. It descends anteroinferiorly from the uterine cervix to open into the vestibule of the vagina between the labia minora
-Superiorly it surrounds the cervix forming a vaginal recess that has the following subdivisions: (1) anterior fornix, (2) posterior fornix and (3) two lateral fornices
posterior fornix of vagina characteristics
the deepest subdivision and is related to the peritoneum forming the rectouterine pouch (pouch of Douglas)
vagina location in relation to bladder, urethra, and rectum
The bladder and urethra lie are anterior, while the rectum is posterior to the vagina
levator ani and broad ligaments of uterus are found
on either side of the vagina
uterus characteristics
-a pear-shaped, muscular organ which has a fundus, body and cervix
-fundus is the rounded upper portion above the entrance of the uterine tubes
-body lies between the fundus and cervix
-opening in the cervix next to the vagina is the external os.
3 layers of tissue of wall of uterus
(1) perimetrium, an outer serous coat of peritoneum
(2) myometrium, the middle coat of smooth muscle
(3) endometrium, the inner mucous coat (its thickness varies with the various stages of the menstrual cycle)
anteroinferior (vesical) surface of uterus related to
the urinary bladder
posterosuperior surface of the uterus is related to
related to the intestines
The right and left borders of uterus associations
The right and left borders are associated with the broad ligaments of the uterus.
4 uterine ligaments and fxn
-connective tissue ligaments support the uterus in the pelvic cavity
A. The round ligament of the uterus
B. The transverse cervical (lateral cervical) ligament
C. The uterosacral ligaments
D. The broad ligaments
round ligament of the uterus characteristics
-extends from the side of the uterus to the deep inguinal ring, where it traverses the inguinal canal
-terminates in the subcutaneous connective tissue of the labia majorum, after passing through the superficial inguinal ring.
The transverse cervical (lateral cervical) ligament characteristics
extends from the cervix and lateral vaginal fornices to the lateral walls of the pelvis minor.
The uterosacral ligaments characteristics
pass from the sides of the cervix toward the sacrum. They lie between the peritoneum and the levator ani.
The broad ligaments of uterus characteristics
-extend from the sides of the uterus to the lateral walls and floor of the pelvis
-formed from two layers of peritoneum draped over the uterine tubes
-Contained within this double-layer of peritoneum are the ligaments of the ovary and the round ligaments of the uterus
The broad ligaments consist of the following parts
-mesometrium, mesosalpinx and mesovarium
-mesometrium is attached to the uterus
-mesosalpinx is that part of the broad ligament which is associated with the uterine tube
-mesovarium is associated with the ovary.
Uterine (Fallopian) Tubes or Oviducts parts
- these muscular tubes are 4-5" long and consist of the following parts:
(1) infundibulum, the funnel-shaped end that opens at the abdominal ostium
(2) ampulla, the widest and longest part
(3) isthmus, the short and thick-walled portion that joins the uterus
(4) uterine part, the intramural portion which opens at the uterine ostium
Ovaries characteristics
-almond-shaped gonads are located near the lateral wall of the pelvis minor in a recess called the ovarian fossa
-Each ovary is located on the posterior side of the broad ligament (the mesovarium attaches the anterior border of the ovary to the posterior surface of the broad ligament)
ligament of the ovary fxn
attaches ovary to the uterus,
suspensory ligament of the ovary characteristics
-thickening of connective tissue that contains the ovarian vessels and nerves

-passes from the lateral wall of the pelvic cavity to the ovary
location of perineum and contents
- the perineum is the most inferior region of the trunk.

-contained within this region are the external genitalia and anal canal.
boundaries of perineum as viewed from below
1. Lateral boundaries - ischiopubic rami and sacrotuberous ligaments
2. Posterior boundary - coccyx
3. Anterior boundary - pubic symphysis
superior and inferior boundaries of perineum
-The superior boundary or pelvic diaphragm separates the perineum from the pelvic cavity

-The inferior boundary is the surface of the skin associated with the external genitalia and anal canal
2 triangles of perineum dividing line
-the perineum can conveniently be divided into two triangles by drawing an imaginary horizontal line between the two ischial tuberosities. In the midline this imaginary line will pass through the perineal body
urogenital triangle boundaries
pubic symphysis

ischiopubic rami

imaginary horizontal line between the two ischial tuberosities
anal triangle boundaries
coccyx

sacrotuberous ligaments

imaginary horizontal line between the two ischial tuberosities
termination of anal canal
the anus
Ischiorectal (ischioanal) fossae are
wedge-shaped spaces on either side of the anal canal
Ischiorectal (ischioanal) fossae boundaries
1. Lateral wall - obturator internus and ischium
2. Superomedial wall - levator ani and anal canal
3. Base - skin of perineum
distention of the anal canal during defecation is made possible
because the ischiorectal fossae are filled with fat. In other words, there are no vital organs in close proximity to the anal canal to interfere with its distention during defecation
pudendal canal characteristics
-on lateral walls of ischiorectal fossae, located on the medial surface of the obturator internus
-contains the pudendal nerve and the internal pudendal artery and vein
-Passing from the pudendal canal to the anal canal are the inferior rectal artery, vein and nerve which travel through the ischiorectal fossae
contents of anal triangle
1. Anal canal
2. internal anal sphincter (upper part of anal canal, pelvic splanchnic nerves)
3. external anal sphinter (lower part, inferior rectal nerve)
4. Ischiorectal (ischioanal) fossae
Contents of the Urogenital Triangle
- this region can be divided into deep and superficial perineal spaces
Deep perineal space includes
the urogenital diaphragm, its fasciae and contents
Urogenital (U-G) Diaphragm characteristics
- a continuous sheet of muscle that spans the gap between the ischiopubic rami
-superior and inferior fascial layers fuse along the anterior and posterior borders
-The perineal body is attached to the midpoint of the posterior border
Urogenital diaphragm in women split by
-In women, this muscular diaphragm is split into two halves by the vagina
Urogenital (U-G) Diaphragm contents
1. The first part of the urethra in females and the membranous urethra in males.
2. Deep perineal muscles:
a. external urethral sphincter
b. The deep transverse perineus which inserts in the perineal body in both males and females.
3. Bulbourethral glands in males
external urethral sphincter characteristics
-surrounds the membranous urethra

-relaxes to allow urination to occur or when ejaculation of semen occurs
Superficial Perineal Space characteristics
-a potential space deep to the perineal skin that covers the external genitalia

-In females, this space is split into two halves by the vestibule of the vagina
Superficial Perineal Space in males contents
1. Root of penis includes right and left crura, the bulb of the penis and the ischiocavernosus and bulbospongiosus muscles
2. Body (shaft) of penis consists of skin and three bodies of erectile tissue including the corpus spongiosum and bilateral corpora cavernosa.
3. Superficial transverse perineus muscle located along the posterior border of the U-G diaphragm
Superficial Perineal Space (in females) contents
contains the vulva or external genitalia, which includes the following structures:
1. Labia majora (bilateral)
2. Labia minora (bilateral)
3. Clitoris
labia majora form
unite anteriorly to form the mons pubis
labia minora characteristics
-surround the vestibule of the vagina, which contains the external urethral orifice, vaginal orifice, openings of the paraurethral glands and the greater vestibular glands
Clitoris characteristics
-the female homologue to the penis in the male
-consists of the following parts: two crura, two corpora cavernosa, one body and the glans clitoris (the only part which is visible externally)
-glans clitoris is attached to the body and is externally visible.
crus and corpus cavernosum of clitoris characteristics
--Each crus is continuous with a corpus cavernosum, which is composed of erectile tissue
-crus and corpus cavernosum are surrounded by an ischiocavernosus muscle, which contracts during sexual arousal to retard the return of venous blood from the corpus cavernosum
-The two corpora cavernosa unite to form the body of the clitoris
In addition to the vulva, the superficial perineal space in females includes several important structures which are deep to the skin:
1. Bulbs of the vestibule
2. Greater vestibular glands (Bartholin's glands)
3. Superficial transverse perineus muscles
bulbs of the vestibule characteristics
- located deep to the skin of the labia minora; these bulbs are composed of erectile tissue
-Each bulb is covered by a bulbocavernosus muscle, which is attached to the perineal body
-During sexual arousal these muscles compress the bulbs of the vestibule, retarding the return of venous blood.
greater vestibular glands (bartholin's glands)
produce a clear mucous secretion during sexual arousal which lubricates the vulva
arterial supply of perineum
internal pudendal artery

external pudendal artery
internal pudendal artery characteristics
-enters the perineum via the lesser sciatic foramen and then enters the pudendal canal
-gives branches to the anal canal and ischiorectal fossa, deep perineal space and superficial perineal space
-Included in its important branches are the helicine arteries, which supply the erectile tissues in both males and females
external pudendal artery characteristics
-a branch of the femoral artery

-sends deep and superficial branches to the scrotum and penis in the male and the labia majora and clitoris in the female.
pudendal nerve (S2-S4) sends branches to
sends branches to all structures supplied with blood by the internal pudendal artery.

(anal canal and ischiorectal fossa, deep perineal space and superficial perineal space)
contents of pudendal nerve (S2-S4)
(1) preganglionic parasympathetic fibers (GVE) destined for glands and smooth muscle
(2) somatic motor fibers (GSE) which innervate skeletal muscles
(3) somatic sensory fibers (GSA)
(4) postganglionic sympathetic fibers (GVE) which supply glands and smooth muscle
somatic sensory fibers (GSA) of pudendal nerve characterstics
-associated with sensory receptors in the perineal skin, distal portion of anal canal and distal portion of vaginal canal
-In addition to the pudendal nerve there are other nerves supplying this region with cutaneous branches.
Lymphatic Drainage of perineum
- superficial perineal space, distal portions of the vagina and anal canal (below the pectinate line) drain to the superficial inguinal nodes
- The deep perineal space, proximal portion of vagina, and proximal portion of anal canal (above the pectinate line) drain to the internal iliac nodes
sympathetic fibers for the organs in the abdomen, pelvis and perineum provided by
provided by the thoracic, lumbar and sacral splanchnic nerves
parasympathetic fibers for the organs in the abdomen, pelvis and perineum provided by
provided by the anterior and posterior vagal trunks and the pelvic splanchnic nerves
Thoracic Splanchnic Nerves composition and origin
-preganglionic sympathetic nerve fibers originate from sympathetic chain ganglia T5-T12 and consist of three bilateral sets of nerves (greater, lesser, and lower)
Greater splanchnic nerve characteristics
-originates from T5-T9 sympathetic ganglia and descends in the posterior mediastinum to synapse in the coeliac ganglion, which surrounds the coeliac trunk
-postganglionic sympathetic fibers are distributed with branches of the celiac trunk to the esophagus, stomach, spleen, pancreas, liver, biliary system, duodenum and greater omentum
Lesser splanchnic nerve characteristics
-originates from T10-T11 sympathetic ganglia and descends into the abdomen to synapse in the superior mesenteric ganglion, which surrounds the origin of the superior mesenteric artery
-post-ganglionic fibers are distributed with branches of the superior mesenteric artery to the jejunum, ileum, caecum, ascending colon and transverse colon
Lowest (least) splanchnic nerve characteristics
-originates from T12 sympathetic ganglion and descends into the abdomen to synapse in the aorticorenal ganglion

-postganglionic fibers are distributed with the renal arteries to the kidneys
Lumbar Splanchnic Nerves composition and origin
-these preganglionic sympathetic nerve fibers originate in sympathetic chain ganglia L1-L5 and consist of four bilateral sets of nerves
First and second lumbar splanchnic nerves characteristics
-originate from L1 and L2 sympathetic ganglia and terminate in the intermesenteric plexus on the anterior surface of the abdominal aorta
-postganglionic fibers are distributed with branches of the inferior mesenteric artery and go to the descending colon, sigmoid colon and proximal rectum
3rd and 4th lumbar splanchnic nerves characteristics
-Third (from L3 sympathetic ganglion) and fourth (from L4 and L5 sympathetic ganglia) lumbar splanchnic nerves enter the superior hypogastric plexus, on the anterior surface of the distal abdominal aorta
-Postganglionic fibers originating in the superior hypogastric plexus are distributed to the ureter
preganglionic fibers of hypogastric plexus characteristics
Most of the preganglionic fibers in this plexus travel by way of the hypogastric nerves to the inferior hypogastric plexus on the anterior surface of the sacrum, where they synapse
postganglionic fibers originating in the inferior hypogastric plexus are distributed
with the branches of the internal iliac artery to the organs of the pelvic cavity and perineum
Sacral Splanchnic Nerves characteristics
-preganglionic sympathetic nerves originating from S1-S5 sympathetic ganglia terminate in the inferior hypogastric plexus
-postganglionic fibers are distributed with the pudendal nerve and branches of the internal iliac artery to the organs of the pelvic cavity and perineum
Vagus Nerve characteristics
-the preganglionic parasympathetic fibers originate in the brain stem (dorsal motor nucleus)
-enter the abdomen via the anterior and posterior vagal trunks to terminate in intrinsic (enteric) plexuses located in the walls of the stomach, liver, pancreas, small intestine caecum, ascending colon and transverse colon
-postganglionic fibers are relatively short; they are distributed to smooth muscle and glands in the organs listed in the previous sentence.
Pelvic Splanchnic Nerves characteristics
-preganglionic parasympathetic fibers originate in the sacral spinal cord (S2-S4) and synapse in intrinsic (enteric) plexuses located in the walls of individual organs
-These organs include the descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal, urogenital organs of the pelvic cavity and the structures in the urogenital triangle of the perineum
peritoneum of the ovary
-ovaries are not covered by peritoneum

-peritoneum would hinder ovulation