Anatomy- Endocrine System

Front 1

Hormone:

Back 1

Means "awake, stimulate"
1. Chemical messenger produced by endocrine gland and transported via blood to target organ
2. Proteins (polypeptide)- insulin
3. Biogenic amines- adrenaline
4. Steroids - estrogens

Front 2

Endocrine system consists of:

Back 2

1. Endocrine glands
2.Disseminated endocrine cells
3. Neuroendocrine cells

Front 3

Endocrine cells:

Back 3

1. Hypophysis
2. Thyroid gland
3. Parathyroid bodies
4. Suprarenal glands
5. Pancreas
6. Epiphysis

Front 4

History of hypophysis:

Back 4

Cushing explained hypophyseal function (Dirigent of the endocrine system)

Front 5

Hypophysis development:

Back 5

1. Ratke`s pouch:
- 3rd week- in the ceiling of oral cavity
- exagination towards diencephalon
- separation of exagination, proliferation of anterior wall

2. Exagination of base of diencephalon:
- produces posterior lobe
differentiation into pitucytes

Front 6

Adenohypophysis- 3 parts:

Back 6

Pars distalis:
- biggest (75%)

Pars tuberalis:
- cranially

Pars intermedia:
- between adeno and neurohypophysis

Front 7

Pars distalis of adenohypophysis:

Back 7

Strands of cells, in between capillaries.
On HE- 3 types of cells:
- acidophilic
- basophilic (PAS- positive)
- chromophobic (without granules, non- differentiated elements)

Front 8

Basophilic cells from pars distalis:

Back 8

β1 cells:
- gross granules by cellular membrane
- ACTH, β-MSH, Met- enkefalin, endorfin

β2- cells:
- big cells, small granules
- TSH

δ- cells:
- big cells, middle sized granules
- FSH, LH

Front 9

Pars tuberalis of adenohypophysis:

Back 9

Surrounds infundibulum
Numerous capillaries
Most of the are δ- cells

Front 10

Acidophilic cells of pars distalis:

Back 10

α- cells:
-rough granules, GER
- around nucleus zone, without granules- GA
- growth hormone (somatotropin, GH)

ε- cells:
- usually small, not numerous (x graviditas, lactation)
- small granules (graviditas- enlargement)
- prolactin (PRL)

Front 11

Pars intermedia:

Back 11

Rudimentary
Basophilic
Follicles can be created

Front 12

Neurohypophysis:

Back 12

1. Eminentia medialis:
- bottom of 3rd brain ventricle
- numerous non myelinated nerve fibers

2. Infundibulum:
- non myelinated nerve fibers
- some terminates by capillaries

3. Par nervosa

Front 13

Development of thyroid gland:

Back 13

Starts at day 24
Exagination of endoderm of primitive pharynx
Relative and absolute descensus- ductus thyreoglossus)
Foramen caecum
Lobe creation

Front 14

Histogenesis of thyroid gland:

Back 14

1. Solid endoderm formation
2. Ingrowth of surrounding mesenchyme and blood vessels
3. Ingrowth of ultimobrachial bodies
4. Separation of cells into groups in the 10th week
5. Single layer of epithelium around lumen
6. 11th week- production of coloid

Front 15

Composition of thyroid gland:

Back 15

1. Capsule with septa
2. Follicules (50- 900 micrometers):
- ball shaped
- single layer epithelium of follicular cells
- contains coloid- thyreoglobulin
3. Follicular cells
4. Parafollicular cells

Front 16

Follicular cells of thyroid gland:

Back 16

Ball shaped nucleus
Numerous GER (basally), mitochondria
Numerous lysosomes
Thyreoglobulin, cleavage of T4 and T3

Front 17

Synthesis of thyroid hormones:

Back 17

1. Iodine pump using ATP transfers iodine from blood into coloid
2. Synthesis of thyroglobulin and peroxidasis, deposit in one secretory pouch and its release into coloid by exocytosis
3. Iodization of thyroglobulin using peroxidase in coloid and origin of iodine thyroglobulin
4. Endocytosis of iodine thyroglobulin and fusion of primary lysosome with this pouch
5. Proteolysis of iodine thyroglobulin into T3, T4 and other fragments
6. Release of T3 and T4 into circulation, and binding on transport plasmatic protein

Front 18

Parafollicular cells:

Back 18

C- cells
Located in between follicules (individually by groups)
Bigger, lighter
Numerous GER, GA, MIT
Ball shaped, dark granules
Creation and accumulation of calcitonin

Front 19

Parathyroid gland characteristics:

Back 19

2 pairs of small ball shaped like structures on posterior side of lobes of thyroid gland.

Separate branches of inferior thyroid artery.
Play a role in metabolism (parathyroid hormone/ PTH)

Front 20

Development of parathyroid gland:

Back 20

1. From dorsal part of 3rd and 4th branchial exagtion
2. 5th week: proliferation of endoderm and loss of lumen
3. Ingrowth of vessels from mesenchyme
4. Main cells: fetal metabolism of Ca2+
5. "Oxyphilic cells"- originate in approximately 7th year of life

Front 21

Parathyroid gland composition:

Back 21

1. Capsule and septa
2. Parenchyme separated into trabecules
3. Main cells (relatively big cells, 4-8 microns):
- light cytoplasm
- granules containing PTH
4. Oxyphilic cells- rare and bigger:
- dark cytoplasm
- without granules
- rich in mitochondria
- function not clear

Front 22

Characteristics if suprarenal gland:

Back 22

1. Suprarenal cortex:
- mineralcorticoids- aldosteron
- glucocorticoids- cortisol, corticosteron
- androgens- testosteron

2. Suprarenal medulla:
- catecholamines- adrenaline, noradrenaline

Front 23

Development of suprarenal gland:

Back 23

1. Cortex:
- from coelomic epithelium on sides of mesenterium
- proliferation in direction towards aorta
- secondary proliferation of cortex--> origin of permanent cortex

2. Medulla:
- from essence of ganglion coeliacum
- sympaticoblasts, migrate into origin of cortex

Front 24

Composition of cortex of suprarenal gland:

Back 24

1. Capsule- septa:
- fibroblasts
- collagen and elastic fibers
- smooth mm. cells

2. Suprarenal gland cortex:
- zona glomerulosa (15%)
- zona fascicularis (65%)
- zona reticulosa (7%)

Front 25

Zona glomerulosa of suprarenal gland:

Back 25

External layer
Bent columns of cylindrical cells (producing steroids)
In between capillary sinusoids
Production of aldosterone

Front 26

Suprarenal gland mnemonic:

Back 26

Go Find Rex
Make Good Sex

Front 27

Zona fasiculata of suprarenal gland:

Back 27

Middle layer- widest layer
Long trabecules of cells:
- adipose inclusions in cytoplasm
- cells producing steroids
Sinusoids in between trabecules
Production of glucocorticoids and androgens

Front 28

Zona reticulosa of suprarenal gland:

Back 28

Inner thinnest cortical layer
Non regular anastomous trabecules of cells:
- small cells with lipofucin granules
- elements with pyknoic nucleus
Capillaries in between trabecules
Produce glucocorticoids and androgens

Front 29

Composition of suprarenal medulla:

Back 29

1. Anastomous trabecules of polyndr. cells:
- big nucleus
- gER, MIT, GA, granules
- adrenaline, noradrenaline, chromogranins, ATP
- dopamine- beta- hydroxylase, Leu- and Met- enkefalin
2. In between trabecules- capillary bed
3. Rarely- parasympathetic ganglionic

Front 30

Blood supply of suprarenal gland:

Back 30

1. aa.suprarenales sup., mediae and inf.
2. Subcapsular plexus
3. Capsular, cortical and medullary arteries
4. Inside medulla: arterial and venous blood
5. Vena suprarenalis

Front 31

Langerhans islets:

Back 31

Endocrine part of panceras
Size: 0,1-0,2 mm
Number: 1- 1,5 millions
Different types of cells: A, B, D, PP, (F)
Production:
- insulin
- glucagon
- somatostatin
- pancreatic polypeptide

Front 32

Langerhans islets development:

Back 32

Differentiate form undifferentiated cells of panceras
Emerge from tubules
First A cells then, B, D and PP
Insular pole: all types mixed
Shell islets: B- cells in the core with an A- shell
Production:
- insulin in 10th week
- glucagon in 15th week

Front 33

Disseminated endocrine cells:

Back 33

Endocrine cells of GIT
"Closed" type VS. "open" type
Contain numerous granules
Great number of different types:
Lots of hormones regulating GIT functions

Front 34

Endocrine glands:

Back 34

Hypothalamus
Hypophysis
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid gland

Front 35

Anatomy of suprarenal gland:

Back 35

Located:
- retroperitoneal
- level T11- T12

Surfcae:
- Facies anterior+ posterior+ renalis

Hilum:
- at facies anterior
- v. centralis
- v.suprarenalis emerge here

Have a capsule and have common corpus adiposum perirenale and fascia renalis with kidney

Front 36

Vessels of suprarenal gland:

Back 36

1. aa. suprarenales (3)
2. Subcapsular plexus
3. Capsular, cortical and medullar aa.
4. In medulla: both arterial and venous blood
5. In medulla: plexus venosus medullaris---> vena centralis---> vena suprarenalis (1)

Front 37

Pheochromocytome:

Back 37

Hypertension attacks (medullary)

Front 38

Cushing`s syndrome:

Back 38

Hyperfunction of cortex (endogenous hyperkortikalism):- peripheral disorder

Front 39

Cushing`s disease:

Back 39

Hyperfunction of cortex due to adenome og hypophysis= central disorder

Front 40

Conn`s syndrome:

Back 40

Hyperfunction of cortex leading to hyperaldosteronism

Front 41

Addison`s disease:

Back 41

Hypofunction of cortex leading to hypokortikalism

Front 42

Anatomy of pancreas:

Back 42

Exocrine and endocrine part
Topography: duodenal window L2
Secondary retroperitoneal organ
Blood supply: islets vessels

Front 43

Where in the pancreas do Beta cells predominate:

Back 43

In the core of the body and tail of pancreas

Front 44

Alpha- cells of Langerhan`s islets:

Back 44

= Glucagonocytes
Have alpa- granules- spheroid 300 nm
Produce glucagon- hyperglycaemic- glycogenolytic factor

Front 45

Beta- cells of Langerhan`s islets:

Back 45

= Insulinocytes
Contain Beta- granules- spheroid, 300 nm "species specific"
Produce insulin- hypoglycaemic factor

Front 46

Delta- cells of Langerhan`s islets:

Back 46

= Somatostaniocytes
Contain delta- granules; spheroid 250 nm- totally filled
One long cell process: paracrinne secretion
Produce somatostatine

Front 47

PP- cells of Langerhan`s islets:

Back 47

Have bright 180 nm granules
Produce pancreatic polypeptide which regulates exocrine pancreas

Front 48

G- cells of Langerhan`s islets:

Back 48

Produce gastrine

Front 49

Alpha- cells of Langerhan`s islets:

Back 49

= Glucagonocytes
Have alpa- granules- spheroid 300 nm
Produce glucagon- hyperglycaemic- glycogenolytic factor

Front 50

Beta- cells of Langerhan`s islets:

Back 50

= Insulinocytes
Contain Beta- granules- spheroid, 300 nm "species specific"
Produce insulin- hypoglycaemic factor

Front 51

Delta- cells of Langerhan`s islets:

Back 51

= Somatostaniocytes
Contain delta- granules; spheroid 250 nm- totally filled
One long cell process: paracrinne secretion
Produce somatostatine

Front 52

PP- cells of Langerhan`s islets:

Back 52

Have bright 180 nm granules
Produce pancreatic polypeptide which regulates exocrine pancreas

Front 53

G- cells of Langerhan`s islets:

Back 53

Produce gastrine

Front 54

Multiple endocrine neoplasia= MEN syndrome:

Back 54

Multiple neoplasia of endocrine glands
Usually hereditary (AD)
3 types:
1. MEN 1:
Tumors of parathyroid gland, pancreas and hypophysis
2. MEN 2a:
Medullary carcinoma of thyroid gland, pheochromocytoma and tumors of parathyroid gland
2. MEN 2b:
Medullary carcinoma of thyroid gland, pheochromocytoma and neuromas

Front 55

Pineal gland (glandula pinealis- "epiphysis"):

Back 55

1. Developmental relation to parietal eye- reaction to polarized light.
2. Located above upper posterior end of third ventricle (part of epithalamus and diencephalon)
3. Rudimentary endocrine gland with suppressive effect on gonadal functions---> pubertas praecox
4. Dorsally, projects over brainstem (over lamina quadrigemina mesencephali)

Front 56

Pineal gland characteristics:

Back 56

1. Capsule from pia mater--> septula
2. Pinealocytes:
- nucleus with prominent nucleolus
- basophilic cytoplasm
- production of melatonin (level changes throughout the day)
3. Interstitial/ astroglial cells (astrocytes)- rod like nucleus
4. Innervated by n.pinealis--> nonmyelinated nerve fibers

Front 57

"Brain sand" of pineal gland:

Back 57

"Acervulus; corpus arenaceum":
- concentrations of protein material with Ca2+ salts
- number increases with age
- CT, MRI

Front 58

Paraganglia:

Back 58

1. Chromafinne (former paraganglia sympathica):
- paraganglion aorticum abdominale "Zuckerkandii"
- glomus coccygeum Luschklae
- glomus jugulare

2. Without chromafinne reaction (former paraganglia parasympathica):
- baro- and chemoreceptors
- glomus caroticum and glomus aorticum

Front 59

Glomus caroticum:

Back 59

In sinus caroticus at level C4- n.IX and X

Front 60

Glomus aorticum:

Back 60

In arcus aorticum- n.X

Front 61

Testes produce:

Back 61

Testosteron

Front 62

Ovaries produce:

Back 62

Estrogens and gestagenes

Front 63

Corpus luteum and placenta produce:

Back 63

HCG

Front 64

Glandulae oris:

Back 64

1. Glandulae oris majores:
- gl. parotis
- gl. sublingualis
- gl.submandibularis

2. Glandulae salivariae minores:
- buccales
- molares
- labiales
- palatinae
- lingualis anterior (Blandini)
- linguales posterior (Ebner)
- radicis linguae (Weber)

Front 65

Glandulae salivariae majores:

Back 65

Capsula (collagen fibers)--> septa

Secretory part:
- serous, mucinous and myoepithelial (basket) cells

System of ducts:
- intralobular (intercalated--> striated--->)
- excretory ---> interlobular--> interlobar--> principal--> oral cavity

Front 66

Glandulae salivariae cells:

Back 66

1. Serous
2. Mucous
3. Cells of intercalated duct
4. Cells of striated duct

Front 67

Serous cells:

Back 67

Acinus (pyramid shape)
Produce proteins
Basophilic due to high ER, GA
Apically located microvilli and secretory granula

Front 68

Mucous cells:

Back 68

Cuboidal, columnar
Form tubules
Produce mucus--> light granula (which can fuse)
Viscous secretion--> distally than serous cells

Front 69

Cells of intercalated duct:

Back 69

One layer flat/ low cuboidal epithelium
Lactoferin, lysosome
Converge into striated ducts

Front 70

Cells of striated duct:

Back 70

Radial arrangement
Striation= fold of BM+ mitochondria
Cells transporting ions
Forming hypotonic saliva

Front 71

Glandula parotis:

Back 71

Ductus parotideus "Stenosis"---> above upper M2.
Pars profunda + superficialis
Plexus parotideus n. VII
Glandula parotidea accessoria
Regio parotideomasseterica

Front 72

Parasympathetic innervation of parotid gland:

Back 72

n.IX---> n.tympanicus--> n.petrous minor (Jacobson`s anastomosis) ---> ganglion oticum Arnoldi---> n.auriculotemporalis

Front 73

Sympathetic innervation of parotid gland:

Back 73

Truncus sympaticus--> ggl.cervicale sup.--> plexus a-meningeae mediae

Front 74

Structure of parotid gland:

Back 74

Pure serous, compound acinar gland.
Ramified acines, long ducts.
Plasmocytes in lamina propria- IgA--> complexes with secretion component (synthesized in serous, intercalated and striated parts)
PAS positive granules (polysaccharide, amylase)
25 % of saliva volume

Front 75

Glandula submandibularis:

Back 75

Ductus submandibularis Whartoni--> caruncula sublingualis.
Trigonum submandibulare

Front 76

Parasympathetic innervation of submandibular gland:

Back 76

n.VII.---> chorda tympani---> n.lingualis---> ganglion submandibulare

Front 77

Sympathetic innervation of submandibular gland:

Back 77

Truncus sympaticus--> ggl.cervicake sup. ---> plexus a.facialis

Front 78

Structure of submandibular gland:

Back 78

Seromucinous, compound tubulo-acinar gland.
Serous acines adjacent to mucinous tubules are transformed in serous demilunes (semiluna serosa)
Serous elements prevail (basophilic cytoplasm)
PAS positive granule
70% of saliva volume

Front 79

Sublingual gland:

Back 79

Ductus sublingualis major Bartholini--> caruncula sublingualis

Ductus sublinguales minores--> plicae sublinguales

Identical innervation as submandibular gland

Front 80

Structure of sublingual gland:

Back 80

Seromucous, compound tubulo- acinar gland
Mucous cells prevail
NO intercalated ducts
Short striated ducts
5% of saliva volume

Front 81

Description of pancreas:

Back 81

Caput (processus uncinatus incisura)
Collum
Corpus (margines, facies)
Cauda

Front 82

Structure of pancreas:

Back 82

Ductus pancreaticus Wirsungi
(sphincter d.p)
d.p.accessorius Santorini
Insulae pancreaticae Langerhansi (1%)

Front 83

Fixation of pancreas:

Back 83

lig.pancreaticosplenicum, -colicum
vasa mesenterica sup.

Front 84

Topography of pancreas:

Back 84

Duodenal window L2
Secondary retroperitoneal organ

Front 85

Arterial supply of pancreas:

Back 85

Caput:
1. Truncus coelicacus--> a.hepatica sommunis---> a.gastroduodenalis sup.post.+ sup.ant + aa.retroduodenales

2. a.mesenterica sup.--> a.pancreaticoduodenalis inf.--> ramus ant. + r.post

Corpus et cauda:
1. Truncus coelicacus---> a.splenica -->rr.pancreatici

Front 86

Veinous supply of pancreas:

Back 86

1. vv.pancreaticoduodenales--> v.mesenterica sup.--> v.portae

2. vv.pancreaticae--> v.splenica--> v.portae

Front 87

Lymph drainage:

Back 87

n.l.pancreaticoduodenales, mesenterici sup.
---> n.l.lumbales

Front 88

Nervous innervation of pancreas:

Back 88

1. Parasympathetic: n.X

2. Sympathetic: truncus sympaticus---> nn.splanchnici major+ minor---> ggl.coeliacum + mesentericum sup.

Front 89

Pancreas, "the gland":

Back 89

Mixed gland:
1. Pars exocrina
2. Pars endocrina

Front 90

Pars exocrina of pancreas:

Back 90

1. Serous, compund tubulo- acinar gland:
- serous cells (form acines, lot of ER, GA and apical zymogen granules)
- no striated intralobular ducts
- ductus intercalatus--> d.intralobularis---> d.interlobularis--> d.excretorius--> d.pancreaticus (+d.p.accessorius)

Front 91

Secretion from exocrine part of pancreas:

Back 91

Water, ions, (chymo-)trypsinogen, karboxypeptidase, (deoxy-)ribonuclase, lipase, amylase, elastase

- secretin--> much fluid, HCO3-, neutralization of chymus
- cholecystokinin---> much enzymes (release of granule)

Front 92

Endocrine part of pancreas:

Back 92

Insulae pancreaticae= Langerhan`s islets

Front 93

Exocrine part of pancreas:

Back 93

Acines surrounded by basal membrane:
1. Exocrine cells of pancreas (pancreatocytus exocrinus)
- zymogen granula
2. Centroacinar cells
3. Intercalated duct

Front 94

Liver- description:

Back 94

Facies diaphragmatica/ area nuda
Impressio cardiaca/ visceralis (impression of organs-6)
Margo inferior
4 lobes
8 segments (according to blood vessels branching)

Front 95

Liver ligaments:

Back 95

Lig.teres hepatis
Venosus
Coronarium/falciforme
Triangulare dx. et sin.
Hepatorenale
Appendix fibrosa h.
Lig. v. cavae

Front 96

Fixation of liver:

Back 96

Suspenden on v.cava inf.
Grown together with diaphragm
Supported by other organs
Lig.teres hepatis

Front 97

Portal circulation of liver:

Back 97

v. portae, a.hepatica propria, ductus hepaticus dx. et sin. (lymph vessels and nerves)
Fissurae (3)+ fossa vesicae fellae

Front 98

Arterial supply of liver:

Back 98

Truncus coeliacus--> a.hepatica communis---> a.hepatica propria (+a.hepatica accessoria)--> r.dx.+sin.---> aa.interlobulares

Front 99

Venous supply of liver:

Back 99

v.portae--> vv.interlobulares---> capillaries---> vv.centrales-->v.hepaticae---> v.cava.inf

Front 100

Lymph drainage of liver are in 3 directions:

Back 100

1. n.l.coeliaci
2. n.l.mediastinales ant.
3. Mediastinales post.

Front 101

Nervous innervation of liver:

Back 101

Parasympathetic: n.X

Sympathetic: truncus sympaticus--> plexus coeliacus--> plexus hepaticus

Viscerosensory: n.phrenicus (peritoneum under liver as far as gallbladder)

Front 102

Structure of liver:

Back 102

1. Tunica fibrosa Glissoni
2. Hepatocytes:
- lamina hepatocytia (=trabecules of hepatocytes)
- spatium perisinusoideum= Disse`s space
- sinusoids in between (=irregulary extended capillaries with fenestrated epithelium)
- von Kupffer`s cells (=macrocytophagus stellatus)
- Ito`s cells (=fat storing cells- produce collagen for trabecules and store vit.a)
- Canaliculus bilifer (wall is formed directly by plasmalemma of hepatocytes)

Front 103

Hepatocyte components:

Back 103

Polyhedroc and eosinophilic cell
Large spheroid nucleus (can be polyploid)
GER+ SER
Lot of mitochondria
Bile canaliculus
Tight junctions
Microvilli
Disse`s space
Endothelium

Front 104

Lobulus hepaticus:

Back 104

1. Have 3 zones:
- Central
- Intermediate
- Peripheral
2. Structural unit of liver parenchyma
3. Hexagonal shape
4. v.centralis
5. Hepatocytes radiate
6. Spatium portale
7. Blood flows from periphery to centre

Front 105

Portal area/canal/zone (spatium portale):

Back 105

1. Portal triad:
- venula (<-- v.portae), PV
- arteriola (<-- a.hepatica), A
- interlobular bile duct (---> ductus hepaticus), B (unilayered cuboidal epithelium)
Perivascular fibrous capsule, space of Mall, lymph capillaries

2. Portal lobule:
- centre= portal triad

Front 106

Liver acinus of Rappaport:

Back 106

Rhomboid
Functional unit
According to blood supply (preterminal branch of hepatic arteriol)
3 zones (selective damage of hepatocytes)

Front 107

Function of liver:

Back 107

1. Synthesis of proteins:
- continuos release into blood
- albumin, fibrinogen, protrombin, transferrin, lipoproteins
2. Secretion of bile:
- water, ions, bile acids, phospholipids, cholesterol, bilirubin
3. Metabolic:
- accumulation of metabolites: TAG, glycogen, vit.A
- gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis, deamination of AA
- detoxification: oxidation, methylation, conjugation

Front 108

Intrahepatic bilde ducts:

Back 108

canaliculus bilifer--> canalis bilifer of Hering--> ductus bilifer interlobularis

Front 109

Extrahepatic bile ducts:

Back 109

Ductus hepaticus dx. et sin.--> d.h.communis---> connection with d.cysticus---> d.choledochus (m.sphincter d.ch.)--> ampulla hepatopancreatica (m.sphincter a.h. Oddi)---> papilla duodeni major Vateri---> duodenum

Front 110

Description of gallbladder (vesica fellea/biliaris):

Back 110

Fundus
Corpus
Infundibulum
Collum
Ductus cysticus (plica spiralis)

Front 111

Arterial supply of gallbladder:

Back 111

Truncus coeliacus---> a.hepatica communis---> a.hepatica propria, r.dx.---> a.cystica

(veins corresponds to aa. --->v.portae)

Front 112

Lymph drainage of gallbladder:

Back 112

n.l.hepatici

Front 113

Topography of gall bladder:

Back 113

Trigonum cystohepaticum Caloti
Intraperitoneal organ

Front 114

Bile duct and gallbladder structure:

Back 114

1. Tunica mucosa:
- one layer columnar epithelium
- frequent folds
- collum- mucous tubulous glands
- ductus choledochus- glands

2. Tunica muscularis:
- cholecystokinin--> contraction
- perimuscular layer of connective tissue

3. Tunica serosa

Front 115

Function of gall bladder:

Back 115

Accumulation and concentration of bile by absorption of water (30- 50 ml)