Anatomy Chapters 17-20

Front 1

2 types of glands
- difference
- location of secretions

Back 1

1) Exocrine - ducted - open onto an epithelial surface
2) Endocrine: ductless, secrete directly into the bloodstream

Front 2

location of endocrine cells

Back 2

highly vascularized areas to ensure that their products enter the bloodstream immediately

Front 3

Purpose of endocrine system

Back 3

regulatory system that works closely with the nervous system

Front 4

5 pure endocrine organs
- location

Back 4

1) pituitary - below hypothalamus
2) pineal - back of thalamus
3) thyroid - throat
4) parathyroid - dorsal aspect of thyroid
5) adrenal - top of kidneys

Front 5

4 organs containing endocrine cells
- location

Back 5

1) pancreas - overlaps left kidney toward right one
2) thymus - top of heart
3) gonads - ovaries and testis
4) hypothalamus

Front 6

Origin of endocrine cells

Back 6

epithelial origin

Front 7

neuroendocrine organ

Back 7

hypothalamus - produces hormones and has nervous functions

Front 8

Basic action of hormones

Back 8

influence only specific tissues - target cells
- a hormone can have different effects on different target cells

Front 9

3 types of stimuli that trigger hormone secretion

Back 9

1) humoral - secretion in direct response to changing ion or nutrient levels in the blood. Ex: parathyroid - to reverse decline of blood calcium
2) neural - sympathetics stimulate cells in the adrenal medulla
3) Hormonal - certain hormones signal secretion of other hormones. Ex: hypothalamus hormones stimulate pituitary - stimulates other glands

Front 10

negative feedback loop

Back 10

high blood glucose -- insulin is released -- body cells take up blood glucose so levels in blood decline resulting in insulin release stopping

Front 11

positive feedback loop

Back 11

Baby suckles triggering the release of oxytocin which triggers milk ejection for the mammary gland. Baby feeds and more milk is produced

Front 12

another term for the pituitary

Back 12

hypophysis

Front 13

location and shape of pituitary

Back 13

slightly oval
- housed within sella turcica
- connected by the infundibulum to the hypothalamus

Front 14

Divisions of the pituitary

Back 14

1) Adenohypophysis - anterior lobe
2) Neurohypophysis - posterior lobe

Front 15

hormones released by the pituitary

Back 15

1) ADH - antidiuretic hormone - kidneys
2) OXT - oxytocin - uterus, mammary glands
3) MSH - melanocyte stimulating hormone
4) GH - growth hormone - all body cells
5) ACTH - adrenocorticotropic hormone - Adrenal cortex
6) PRL - prolactin - produce milk
7) LH - Luteinizing hormone - ovaries, testes
8) FSH - follicle stiumlating hormone - ovaries, testes
9) TSH - thyroid stimulating hormone

Front 16

3 subdivisions of the adenohypophysis

Back 16

1) pars distalis (largest)
2) pars intermedia
3) pars tuberalis (wraps around infundibulum)

Front 17

2 subdivisions of the neurohypophysis

Back 17

1) pars nervosa
2) infundibular

Front 18

number of hormones made and secreted by the pars distalis
- 2 main types

Back 18

7 hormones
1) Tropic - regulate hormone secretion by other glands: TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH
2) GH, PRL, MSH

Front 19

what produces:
1) growth hormone
2) thyroid-stimulating
3) follicle-stimulating & Luteinizing
4) prolactin

Back 19

1) somatotropic cells
2) thyrotropic cells
3) gonadotropic cells
4) prolactin cells

Front 20

purpose of melanocyte-stimulating hormone

Back 20

- appetite supression

Front 21

Master control center of the endocrine system

Back 21

Hypothalamus - oversees most endocrine activity by secreting hormones that influence the secretion of the anterior pituitary gland

Front 22

purpose of:
- releasing hormones
- inhibiting hormones

Back 22

1) prompt anterior lobe to release hormones
2) turn off secretion of anterior lobe hormones

Front 23

Path of releasing hormones

Back 23

- secreted like neurotransmitters
- enter a primary capillary plexus
- travel to a secondary capillary plexus
- from here hormones secreted by the anterior lobe enter general circulation

Front 24

characteristics of the posterior lobe of the pituitary

Back 24

1) structurally part of brain
2) axons make up the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract
- arise from neuronal cell bodies (supraoptic and paraventricular nuculus) in the hypothalamus
3) does not make hormones
4) stores and releases hormones made in the hypothalamus
5) releases 2 peptide hormones: ADH, oxytocin

Front 25

characteristics of the thyroid

Back 25

- located in the anterior and lateral of the neck
- left & right lobes connected by isthmus in front of the 1st 3 tracheal cartilages
- composed of follicles and areolar connective tissue
- produces 2 hormones: 1) thyroid hormone 2) calcitonin

Front 26

2 types of endocrine cells in the thyroid and what they produce

Back 26

1) follicular cells - produce TH
2) Parafollicular cells: produce calcitonin

Front 27

Characteristics of parathyroid glands

Back 27

1) posterior surface of the thyroid
2) 2 types of endocrine cells:
a) chief cells - produce parathyroid hormone - increases blood concentration of calcium.
b) oxyphil cells: function unknown

Front 28

characteristics of adrenal glands

Back 28

1) also called suprarenal glands
2) supplied by about 60 suprarenal arteries
3) nerve supply is almost exclusively sympathetic fibers
4) Two endocrine glands in one: a) adrenal medulla b) Adrenal cortex

Front 29

Characteristics of the adrenal Medulla

Back 29

1) cluster of neurons
2) derived from neural crest
3) part of sympathetic NS
4) chromaffin cells: modified ganglionic sympathetic neurons
- secrete amine hormones (epinephrine and nor-E) which enhance fight-or-flight

Front 30

characteristics of adrenal cortex

Back 30

1) derived from somatic mesoderm
2) forms the bulk of the gland
3) secretes steroid hormones - corticosteriods
4) 3 layers (zones)
a) zona glomerulosa - cells arranged in spherical clusters
b) zona fasciculata - in parallel cords - contains lipid droplets
c) zona reticularis - in branching network

Front 31

2 main classes of adrenal corticosteriods

Back 31

1) mineralocorticoids: aldosterone - secreted by the zona glomerulosa when blood volume or blood pressure drops
2) glucocorticoids: cortisol - secreted by zonas fasciciulata & reticularis

Front 32

Which part of adrenal is associated with long and short-term stress responses

Back 32

- short-term - medulla (amino-acid based hormones)
- long-term - cortex (steroid hormones)

Front 33

characteristics of the pineal gland

Back 33

- located on the roof of the diencephalon
- shaped like a pine cone
- pinealocytes secrete melatonin - circadian rhythms

Front 34

characteristics of the pancreas

Back 34

1) posterior of abdominal wall
2) contains 2 types of cells
a) exocrine cells - 99% by mass
b) endocrine - 1% by mass: islets of Langerhans - about 1 million scattered throughout

Front 35

4 types of endocrine cells in the pancreas

Back 35

1) alpha cells - secrete glucagon - signals liver to release glucose from glycogen
2) Beta cells - secrete insulin - signals body cells to take up blood glucose and storage of glucose is glycogen in liver
3) delta cells - secretes somatostatin - inihbits secretion of insulin and glucagon
4) F (PP) cells - secrete pancreatic polypeptide - may inhibit exocrine activity of the pancreas
(last 2 are rare)

Front 36

Characteristics of the thymus

Back 36

- located in mediastinum - above heart
- large during childhood and puberty but shrinks in adulthood
- functions: a) T-cell maturation (immune system)
b) secretes thymosin (endocrine system)

Front 37

Characteristics of the testes

Back 37

interstitial cells secrete androgens
- mainly testosterone - promotes the formation of sperm and maintains secondary sex characteristics

Front 38

Characteristics of the ovaries

Back 38

theca folliculi secrete androgens
- converted to estrogen by follicular granulosa cells
- estrogen - secondary sex characteristics
- progesterone - prepares the uterus for pregnancy

Front 39

Other structures that have endocrine cells

Back 39

1) heart - atria (atrial natriuretic peptide)
2) GI tract - enteroendocrine cells
3) placenta - sustains fetus & secretes several steroid protein hormones
4) kidneys - renin and erythropoietin
5) skin - modified cholesterol molecules convert to a precursor of Vit D

Front 40

Gigantism

Back 40

- pituitary disorder
- hypersecretion of GH in children

Front 41

pituitary dwarfism

Back 41

- pituitary disorder
- hyposecretion of GH in children

Front 42

diabetes insipidus

Back 42

- pituitary disorder
- pars nervosa doesn't make enough ADH

Front 43

Diabetes Mellitus

Back 43

Pancreas disorder
- causes: 1)insufficient secretion of insulin 2) resistance of body cells to the effects of insulin
- Type 1: T cell-mediated autoimmune response destroys beta cells - juvenile
- type 2: adult, usually after 40, cells have lowered sensitivity to insulin - diet and exercise

Front 44

Grave's disease

Back 44

- most common type of hyperthyroidism
- immune system makes abnormal antibodies
- stimulates the over secretion of TH
- leads to nervousness, weight loss, sweating, rapid heart rate

Front 45

Myxedema

Back 45

adult hypothyroidism
- antibodies attack & destroy thyroid tissue
- low metabolic rate and weight gain

Front 46

Cretinism

Back 46

hypothyroidism in children
- short, disproportionate body, thick tongue, mental retardation

Front 47

endemic goiter

Back 47

due to lack of iodine in the diet - thyroid

Front 48

Addison's disease

Back 48

- hyposecretion of the adrenal cortex
- deficiencies of both types of steroids
- bronzing of skin

Front 49

cushing's syndrome

Back 49

hypersecretion of glucocorticoid hormones - usually a pituitary tumor
- high glucose in blood
- loss of protein from muscles
- fat redistributed to back of neck

Front 50

embryological origin of:
1) thyroid
2) parathyroids and thymus
3) pineal gland
4) Pituitary
5) adrenals

Back 50

1) thickening endoderm on the floor of the pharynx
2) endoderm lining the pharyngeal pouches
3) ependymal cells
4) adenohypophysis - roof of mouth
- neurohypophysis - grows inferiorly from the floor of the brain
5) Adrenal medulla - neural crest cells of sympathetic trunk ganglia
- adrenal cortex- mesoderm lining the coelom

Front 51

hormones that drop significantly with age

Back 51

sex hormones, GH, & DHEA - dehydroepiandrosterone (adrenal cortex)

Front 52

Functions of blood

Back 52

1) carry respiratory gasses, nutrients, hormones
2) help body regulate temperature

Front 53

Composition of blood

Back 53

1) Plasma - 55% by vol - water, 100 kinds of molecules, nutrients
a) 3 main proteins: albumin, globulins, fibrinogen
2) formed elements
a) buffy coat - lukeocytes and platelets
b) erythrocytes

Front 54

hemopoiesis

Back 54

production of blood cells in the red marrow
- 100 billion new cells formed each day

Front 55

3 types of blood cells

Back 55

1) erythrocytes - red blood cells
2) Leukocytes - white blood cells
3) Platelets - thrombocytes

Front 56

5 things that develop from a hemocytoblast

Back 56

1) proerythroblast
2) myeloblast
3) lymphoblast
4) monoblast
5) Megakaryoblast

Front 57

Heritage of an erythrocyte (from first to last)

Back 57

1) hemocytoblast
2) proerythroblast
3) polychromatic erythroblast

Front 58

Heritage of a leukocyte

Back 58

All begin with hemocytoblast
*Branch 1: 1) Myeloblast 2) Progranulocyte
3) basophil, eosinophil, neutrophil - all granulocytes
*Branch 2: 1) Lymphoblast 2) lymphocyte = agranulocyte
*Branch 3: 1) Monoblast 2) Monocyte = agranulocyte

Front 59

Heritage of a thrombocyte

Back 59

1) hemocytoblast
2) Megakaryoblast
3) megakaryocyte
4) thrombocyte

Front 60

2 types of lukocytes

Back 60

granulocytes
agranulocytes

Front 61

Location of red marrow in adults

Back 61

1) between trabeculae of spongy bone of axial skeleton
2) girdles
3) proximal epiphyses of humerus and femur

Front 62

Location and characteristics of yellow marrow

Back 62

1) in long bones of adults
2) dormant - makes blood cells only in emergencies
3) contains many fat cells

Front 63

tissue framework of bone marrow

Back 63

reticular connective tissue
- reticular cells = the fibroblasts covering and secreting the fiber network

Front 64

blood sinusoids

Back 64

wide capillaries that run through the reticular tissue
- mature blood cells enter the blood stream through these.

Front 65

mesenchymal stem cells

Back 65

- located in the reticular network of bone marrow
- can give rise to fat cells, osteoblasts, chondrocytes, fibroblasts, and muscle cells

Front 66

Two types of stem cells

Back 66

1) Lymphoid stem cells - give rise to lymphocytes
2) myeloid stem cells - give rise to all other blood cells

Front 67

structure of an erythrocyte that is important to function

Back 67

1) lack a nucleus - can go through capillary one at a time
2) biconcave shape increases surface area and adds flexibility
3) contain about 280 million hemoglobin molecules that bind 3 molecules of Oxygen together
5) few organelles - no mitochrondria so don't consume O2 it carries
4) most numerous of the formed elements in blood

Front 68

erythropoietin

Back 68

hormone released by kidneys when oxygen levels are low which stimulates the red bone marrow to make more erythrocytes

Front 69

what gives blood its red color

Back 69

oxidation of iron atoms in hemoglobin molecules

Front 70

Function and characteristics of leukocytes

Back 70

1) function outside blood stream in loose connective tissue
2) protect body from infectious microorganisms
3) neutrophils - 50-70%
4) Lymphocytes - 24-45%
5) monocytes - 3-8%
eosinophils - 2-4 %
basophils - least numerous

Front 71

diapedesis

Back 71

process of leukocytes leaving capillaries to enter loose connective tissue

Front 72

Neutrophils
- function and characteristics

Back 72

1) most numerous of the leukocytes
2) nucleus has 2 to 6 lobes that are connected
3) function: phagocytize and destroy bacteria

Front 73

Eosinophils
- function and characteristics

Back 73

1) 1 to 4% of leukocytes
2) nucleus has 2 lobes
3) function: ends allergic reactions, parasitic infections

Front 74

basophils
- function and characteristics

Back 74

1) about .5% of leukocytes
2) nucleus - usually 2 lobes
3) function: histamines - mediate inflammation

Front 75

Lymphocytes
- function and characteristics

Back 75

1) 20 to 45% of leukocytes
2) nucleus - large and spherical
3) fight infectious organisms - against a specific antigen
- most important cells of the immune system
4) 2 main classes
a) T Cells - attack foreign cells directly
b) B cells - multiply to become plasma cells - secrete antibodies

Front 76

monocytes
- function and characteristics

Back 76

1) 4 to 8% of leukocytes
2) nucleus is C-shaped
3) largest of all leukocytes
4) transform into macrophages in lymphoid tissues

Front 77

Platelets
- function and characteristics

Back 77

1) cell fragments that break off from megakaryocytes
2) function in clotting of blood

Front 78

polycythemia

Back 78

- abnormal excess of erythrocytes

Front 79

anemia

Back 79

erythrocyte levels or hemoglobin concentrations are low

Front 80

sickle cell disease

Back 80

defective hemoglobin molecule that distorts the RBC into a sickle shape
- inherited condition

Front 81

hemachromatosis

Back 81

- abnormal excess of iron
- inherited

Front 82

Thrombocytopenia

Back 82

abnormally low concentration of platelets

Front 83

leukemia

Back 83

form of cancer that arises in
a) lymphoid cells - lymphoblastic leukemia
b) myeloid cells - myeloblastic leukemia
- acute forms are in children and adults
- chronic forms are primarily in adults

Front 84

fetal blood formation

Back 84

- mesenchyme cells
- late 2nd month - liver and spleen
- 7th month - bone marrow

Front 85

2 circuits being supplied by the heart

Back 85

1) pulmonary circuit - blood too and from lungs
2) systemic circuit - vessels taking blood to and form body tissues

Front 86

Location of heart

Back 86

- largest organ in mediastinum between lungs
- apex is left of the midline
- base is the broad posterior surface

Front 87

What is found in anterior mediastinum

Back 87

thymus, thyroid, parathyroid, lymphatics
- bordered by sternum and heart

Front 88

What is found in middle mediastinum

Back 88

- heart, trachea, aortic arch, pulmonary arteries, pulmonary hila, lymph nodes
- anterior border - anterior heart border
- posterior border - posterior heart border and trachea

Front 89

What is found in posterior mediastinum

Back 89

esophagus, descending aorta, azygous and hemiazgous veins, paravertebral LN, sympathetic chain, thoracic duct
- bordered by posterior heart and trachea and vertebrae

Front 90

location of 4 corners of the heart

Back 90

1) superior right - costal cartilage of 3rd rib & sternum
2) inferior right - costal cartilage of 6th rib lateral to sternum
3) superior left - costal cartilage of 2nd rib laterla to sernum
4) inferior left - lies in the 5th intercostal space at the midclavicular line

Front 91

2 layers of pericardium

Back 91

1) fibrous pericardium - strong layer of dense connective tissue
2) serous pericardium - 2 layers
a) parietal layer
b) visceral layer = epicardium

Front 92

Layers of heart wall

Back 92

1) epicardium - visceral layer of the serous pericardium
2) myocardium - cardiac muscle
3) endocardium - endothelium resting on a layer of connective tissue ; lines internal walls of heart

Front 93

coronary sulcus

Back 93

depressions on outside of heart for coronary blood vessels
- anterior and posterior interventricular sulcus

Front 94

pre/postnatal circulation

Back 94

1) foramen ovale - in aterial septum - becomes fosaa ovalis
2) Ductus arteriosus - from pulmonary trunk to aortic arch - becomes ligamentum arteriosum

Front 95

Structures in right atrium

Back 95

1) pectinate muscles - ridges inside anterior of right atrium
2) crista terminalis - land mark used to locate veins entering right atrium - ridge
3) fossa ovalis - depression in interatrial septum

Front 96

structures on walls of ventricles

Back 96

1) trabeculae carneae
2) papillary muscles
3) chordae tendineae

Front 97

composition of valves

Back 97

1) endocardium with connective tissue core
2) fibrous skeleton surrounds all 4 valves - made of dense connective tissue
- Functions: a) anchors valve cusps b)prevents overdilation of valve openings c) main point of insertion for cardiac muscle d) blocks direct spread of electrical impulses

Front 98

heart sounds
- locations where best heard

Back 98

1) Lub - AV valves closing
2) dub - semilunar valves closing
- Pulmonary - superior L corner
- Aortic - superior R corner
- Mitral - apex
- Tricuspid - inferior right corner

Front 99

Blood flow through heart

Back 99

-Vena Cavas to R atrium
-Tricupsid valve
-R ventricle through pulmonary semilunar valve to pulmonary trunk/arteries to lungs
- 4 pulmonary veins to L atrium through mitral valve to L ventricle
- Aortic semilunar valve to Aorta

Front 100

Systole and diastole

Back 100

- systole - contraction of a heart chamber
- diastole - expansion of a heart chamber

Front 101

difference in heart wall thickness

Back 101

Atria - thin walls
- ventricles - thick walls
- Left ventricle is 3X thicker than right

Front 102

characteristics of cardiac muscle cells

Back 102

1) short 2) striated
3) branching 4) one or 2 nuclei
5) not fused colonies like skeletal muscle
6) cells separated by endomysium - contains blood vessels and nerves
7) cells join at intercalated discs - complex junctions

Front 103

3 types of cell junctions: intercalated discs

Back 103

1) desmosomes
2) fasciae adherans - long desmosome-like junctions
3) gap junctions

Front 104

inherent rhythmicity

Back 104

not all cardiac cells are innervated but still contact in rhythmic manner
- basis for the rhythmic heartbeat
- muscle tissue has intrinsic ability to generate and conduct impulses

Front 105

conducting system in heart

Back 105

- series of specialized cardiac muscle cells
1) sinoatrial (SA) node sets the inherent rate of contraction
2) atrioventricular node
3) atrioventricular bundle
4) bundle branches
5) purkinje fibers - stimulate cells of ventricles

Front 106

Nerves to heart

Back 106

1) visceral sensory fibers
2) parasympathetic branches of vagus nerve - decreases heart rate
3) sympathetic fibers from cervical and upper thoracic chain ganglia - increases heart rate

Front 107

blood supply to heart

Back 107

coronary arteries - R and L
cardiac veins

Front 108

first open heart procedure at U of M
first correction of tetralogy of Fallot

Back 108

1954

Front 109

first small battery-powered pacemaker

Back 109

1958

Front 110

myocardium

Back 110

muscular layer of heart

Front 111

coronary artery

Back 111

artery to the myocardium

Front 112

thrombus
- Embolus

Back 112

plaque that is stationary
- when a plaque detaches & can move to distant sites

Front 113

myocardial infarction

Back 113

heart attack

Front 114

cardiomyogenesis

Back 114

process leading to formation fo myocardium

Front 115

ischemia

Back 115

restriction of blood supply to tissue
- tissue distal to occlusion dies
- results in wall thinning elevating overall stress

Front 116

coronary artery diseases

Back 116

1) atherosclerosis - fatty deposits - build up of plaque in blood vessels
2) angina pectoris - chest pain
3) silent ischemia - no pain or warning

Front 117

aneurysm

Back 117

ballooning of a blood vessel
- caused by atherosclerosis and hypertension

Front 118

heart failure

Back 118

progressive weakening of the heart

Front 119

Congestive heart failure

Back 119

heart enlarges, pumping efficiency declines

Front 120

pulmonary arterila hypertension

Back 120

enlargement and potential failure of right ventricle

Front 121

2 types of arrythmias

Back 121

1) ventricular fibrillation - rapid, random firing of electrical impulses in the ventricles. common cause of cardiac arrest
2) atrial fibrillation - impulses circle within atrial myocardium stimulating AV node
- promotes formation of clots, leads to strokes

Front 122

congenital heart defects

Back 122

1) ventricular septal defect - most common
2) Tetralogy of Fallot - 4 defects
a) pulmonary trunk too narrow--leads to
b) hypertrophied right ventricle
c) ventricular septal defect
d) aorta opens from both ventricles
3) coarctation of the aorta - part of it is narrowed; increases workload on L ventricle

Front 123

cardiac tamponade

Back 123

compression of the heart when fluid builds up in the space between myocardium and pericardium

Front 124

age related changes

Back 124

1) hardening and thickening fo heart valve cusps
2) decline in cardiac reserve
3) fibrosis of cardiac muscle

Front 125

Three layers/tunics in blood vessels

Back 125

1) tunica intima - simple squamous epithelium
2) tunica media - sheets of smooth muscle
- contraction = vasoconstriction
- relaxation = vasodilation
3) Tunica externa - connective tissue

Front 126

Types of arteries

Back 126

1) elastic (conducting) - largest; aorta and major branches
- measured in cm (2.5 to 1)
- high elastin content dampens surge of blood pressure
2) Muscular (distributing) arteries - distal to elastic arteries; most named arteries
- measured in mm 1 cm to .3
- tunica media is thick; elastic membranes on either side of tunica media
3) Arterioles - smallest arteries (.3 mm to 10 μm)
- larger ones have all 3 tunics
- diameter controlled by a) local factors in tissues b) sympathetic nervous system

Front 127

Characteristics of capillaries
- site specific functions

Back 127

- smallest blood vessels (8 to 10 μm) - RBCs pass single file
- lungs - O2 enters blood and CO2 leaves
- small intestines - receive digested nutrients
- endocrine glands - pick up hormones
- Kidneys - removal of nitrogenous wastes

Front 128

capillary beds

Back 128

- network of capillaries running through tissues
- precapillary sphincters regulate the flow of blood to tissues
- when O2 is needed in the tissue the sphincters are open. when there is plenty they close and the blood flows through the metarteriole, the thoroughfare channel

Front 129

Routes of capillary permeability

Back 129

1) endothelial cells - direct diffusion; held together by tight junctions & desmosomes - O2 & CO2
2) intercellular clefts - gaps of unjoined membrane - small molecules can enter and exit
3) cytoplasmic vesicles
4) fenestrations

Front 130

2 types of capillaries

Back 130

1) continuous - most common (skin, muscles, CNS, most organs)
2) fenestrated - have pores - found where there very high rates of exchange (small intestine, kidneys, synovial joints)

Front 131

characteristics of Blood-brain barrier

Back 131

- capillaries have complete tight junctions
- no intercellular clefts
- vital molecules pass through highly selective transport mechanisms

Front 132

characteristics of sinusoids

Back 132

- wide leaky (most permeable) capillaries in liver, bone marrow & spleen
- usually fenestrated
- intercellular clefts are wide open
- have large diameter and twisted course

Front 133

names of veins that go from capillaries to heart

Back 133

- postcapillary venules
- venules (8 to 100 μm)
- veins - tunica externa is the thickest tunic in veins

Front 134

mechanisms to counteract low venous pressure

Back 134

1) valves in some veins - esp in limbs
2) skeletal muscle pump - muscles press against thin-walled veins

Front 135

vascular anastomoses

Back 135

vessels interconnect so organs receive blood from more than one arterial source.
- provides collateral channels
- veins anastomose more frequently than arteries

Front 136

vasa vasorum

Back 136

vessels of vessels that nourish outer region of large vessels
- tunica externa of large vessels have tiny arteries, capillaries and veins

Front 137

Major arteries

Back 137

- common carotid arteries
- brachiocephalic trunk
- thoracic aorta
- abdominal aorta
- common iliac artery
external iliac artery

Front 138

Major arteries - pulse point

Back 138

1) Common carotid artery - neck
2) brachial artery - anterior elbow
3) radial artery - anterior wrist
4) dorsalis pedis artery - anterior ankle

Front 139

what is supplied by external carotid

Back 139

thyroid, lingual, facial, occipital, posterior auricular, superficial temporal, maxillary

Front 140

what is supplied by internal carotid

Back 140

opthalmic, anterior cerebral, anterior communicating (part of cerebral arterial circle), middle cerebral artery

Front 141

what is supplied by vertebral arteries

Back 141

posterior brain
- basilar artery that divides into 2 posterior cerebral arteries - connect to posterior communicating arteries

Front 142

Circle of Willis

Back 142

cerebral arterial circle
- 2 posterior communicating arteries join the anterior communicating artery

Front 143

arteries of upper limb

Back 143

Subclavian becomes axillary
- becomes brachial (at the inferior border of teres major)
- divides into radial artery and ulnar artery

Front 144

arteries of the abdominal aorta

Back 144

1) inferior phrenic arteries 2)celiac trunk 3) superior mesenteric artery 4) suprarenal arteries 5) renal arteries 6) gonadal arteries 7) inferior mesenteric artery 8) common iliac arteries

Front 145

arteries of pelvis and lower limbs

Back 145

1) internal iliac 2) external iliac 3) femoral 4) popliteal 5) anterior tibial 6) posterior tibial 7) dorsalis pedis (top of foot) 8) plantar arch

Front 146

drainage for superior and inferior vena cava

Back 146

1) superior - superior to diaphragm
2) inferior - inferior to diaphragm

Front 147

venous plexuses

Back 147

multivein bundles

Front 148

unusal patterns of venous drainage

Back 148

- dural sinuses - head
- hepatic portal system - picks up digested nutrients and delivers them to liver to process

Front 149

vein used to obtain blood or administer IV fluids

Back 149

median cubital vein

Front 150

veins of the thorax

Back 150

1) azygos
2) hemiazygos
3) accessory hemiazygos

Front 151

veins of abdomen

Back 151

1) lumbar
2) gonadal
3) renal
4) suprarenal
5) hepatic

Front 152

superficial veins of pelvis and lower limbs

Back 152

- Great saphenous vein - empties into the femoral vein
- small saphenous vein empties into the popliteal vein

Front 153

Aneurysm

Back 153

- sac-like widening or outpocketing of an artery/vein that places the vessel at risk of rupturing

Front 154

deep vein thrombosis of the lower limb

Back 154

- clots formed in veins (usually thigh)
- usually result of sluggish blood flow - inactive and bedridden patients

Front 155

Venous disease

Back 155

- inadequate drainage of lower limb
- elderly
- failure of valves to function
- edema...

Front 156

microangiopathy of diabetes

Back 156

elevated blood sugar deposits glycoproteins in basement membrane of body's capillaries
- slower rate of turnover of the tissue fluid

Front 157

arteriovenous malformation

Back 157

congenital
capillaries fail to develop in a certain location so an artery goes directly into a vein.
- usually in cerebrum of the brain

Front 158

fetal circulation

Back 158

all major vessels in place by month 3
- fetus sends very little blood through the pulmonary circuit
- fetus supplies blood to the placenta

Front 159

vessels to and from the placenta

Back 159

1) paired umbilical arteries
2) unpaired umbilical vein

Front 160

fetal vessels and structures

Back 160

1) ductus venosus - from pulmonary artery to aorta
2) ligamentum teres - remnant of umbilical vein
3) ligamentum venosum - remnant of ductus venosus (surface of liver)
4) medial umbilical ligaments - remnant of umbilical arteries