Anatomy And Physiology Test 4

Front 1

What is the only force of resorption in the lymphatic system?

Back 1

Colloid Osmotic Pressure (concentration of proteins)

Front 2

How is the lymphatic system monitored?

Back 2

By WBC's like macrophages and lymphocytes,

Front 3

How is dietary lipid absorbed?

Back 3

via lacteals in the small intestine. The molecules are too large to enter the intestine via capillaries, therefore they combine with proteins to transfer to the interstitial fluid and then move through the lymphatic capillaries. Milky appearance.

Front 4

Why is lymph called lymph?

Back 4

It is called blood filtrate before it leaves the capillary and becomes interstitial fluid and then when it enters the lymphatic capillaries, it becomes lymph. Same fluid without the proteins.

Front 5

Describe the composition of lymph.

Back 5

Less proteins than blood filtrate, but maintain balance for resorption. High lipid content near Sm. Intestine. WBC's are found in lymph, and pathogens and cancer cells can be transported here.

Front 6

Which parts of the body doesn't have lymphatic vessels?

Back 6

Epidermis, cartilage, cornea, and other place sof tight CNS control of blood vessels.

Front 7

What are the two veins that drain the lymphatic vessels?

Back 7

subclavian veins and the jugular veins.

Front 8

Describe the pathway of lymph.

Back 8

lymphatic capillaries --> collecting vessels --> lymphatic trunks (6 primary) -> lymphatic ducts (2) --> subclavian veins

Front 9

How do the lymphatic capillaries stay in place?

Back 9

They are teathered to surrounding tissue, and anchored to surrounding tissue.

Front 10

Describe the structure of lymphatic vessels.

Back 10

Similar to veins. Have smooth muscles to aid in pushing the fluid. Larger vessels contain valves to prevent backflow, which are spaced together, and as they fill create a beaded appearance. Small vessels become larger and larger when traveling toward source.

Front 11

What does the right lymphatic duct do?

Back 11

Drains the head, neck and upper body. Drains into the right subclavian vein.

Front 12

What does the thoracic duct do?

Back 12

Drains the lower body. Larger of the two.

Front 13

Cysterna Chyli

Back 13

Where the 3 trunks in the abdominal cavity converges and where the thoracic duct originates.

Front 14

What is the primary way in which lymph flows through lymphatic vessels?

Back 14

Rhythmic contractions of lymphatic vessels. The endothelial cells that line the lymphatic vessels also have contractile fibers.

Front 15

What are the five other ways in which lymph flows through lymphatic vessels.

Back 15

1. Valves in larger vessels prevent backflow.
2. Skeletal muscle pump.
3. Arterial pulsation.
4. Thoracic (respiratory) pump
5. Physical exercise.

Front 16

How can a lymphatic blockage occur and what are the risks?

Back 16

Scar tissue, pathogens, lymph node removal in surgery. Can cause swelling and possible infection.

Front 17

What are the three types of lymphocytes?

Back 17

T cells, B cells, and Natural killers.

Front 18

What do T lymphocytes do?

Back 18

Attack foreign cells and infected body cells. Attack cells directly. "Thymus dependent," "immuno competent." Able to identify a particular pathogen when in the thymus gland. Need a specific T lymphocyte for each pathogen.

Front 19

What do B lymphocytes do?

Back 19

become "plasma cells" that produce antibodies. immunoglobulin that produce antibodies, mark pathogens for destruction. Stimulate activity by macrophages.

Front 20

What do natural killers do?

Back 20

nonspecific. immunological surveilance. Travel through lymph tissue and when they encounter a foreign substance, attack it. Come from the same line of cells as B lymphocytes without specificity.

Front 21

What do macrophages do?

Back 21

Engage in phagocytosis. Also do antigen presentation -- take something into the cell, process the marker, and present it to lymphocytes. If they recognize the combination, will become activated.

Front 22

Where does lymphopoesis occur?

Back 22

In the bone marrow. T cells differentiate in the thymus, B cells remain in the bone marrow. Retain the ability to divide after they leave bone marrow.

Front 23

What is immunocompetence?

Back 23

the ability to differentiate between the body's cells and foreign cells. If T cells and B cells don't complete immunocompetence, autoimmune disease occurs. Occurs in bone marrow and thymus.

Front 24

Why do lymphatic tissues lack distinct boundaries and the organs are encapsulated?

Back 24

The tissue can increase in size in the event of an infection, and organs are encapsulated bya fibrous capsule, which is more permanent.

Front 25

Describe lymphoid nodules

Back 25

Contain germinal centers where lymphocytes can undergo cell division. Located in the mucosa of tracts that are open to the exterior. (most likely where pathogen will enter). Also found in lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, and Peyer's patches.

Front 26

Describe the anatomy of a lymph node.

Back 26

Contain networks of sinuses that lymph flows and is filtered. Type of drainage system. Lymph is filtered and cleansed several times before returning to venous system.

Front 27

What are the roles of a lymph node?

Back 27

Contain lymphocytes and amcrophages to activate an immune response (surveilance), weigh station for migrating cancer cells, and can thus help diagnose cancer. Can also serve as lymph glands when infected at certain parts of the body (groin, armpit, neck)

Front 28

Where can dense clusters of lymph nodes be found?

Back 28

at attachment points for limbs, head/neck and associated with major tracts such as digestive, respiratory, reproductive, etc.

Front 29

What is the role of the spleen?

Back 29

Highly vascularized organ that cleans the blood.

Front 30

What is white pulp?

Back 30

Tissue associated with the spleen, high number of macrphages and lymphocytes that trigger an immune response and monitor the blood for pathogens.

Front 31

What is red pulp?

Back 31

A tissue in the spleen associated with blood sinusoids. Macrophages take out and destroy old RBC's.

Front 32

What are the three processes during respiration?

Back 32

ventilation, gas exchange, use of O2 in cellular metabolism.

Front 33

What are the major function of respiration?

Back 33

External gas exchange, vocalization, olfaction, and regulating blood pH.

Front 34

How is the respiratory system divided functionally?

Back 34

Conducting and respiratory

Front 35

What is the conducting system made up of and what does it do?

Back 35

nostriles, nose, pharynx, larynx, down to the smallest branches in the lungs. Brings in air, warms it, humidifies it. Also consists of ciliated cells, mucous producing cells that trap debris and pathogens.

Front 36

What does the respiratory division of the respiratory system consist of and what does it do?

Back 36

Where air exchange happens --> bronchioles and alveolar sacs. There is lots of blood covering these structures.

Front 37

What does the upper division of the respiratory division consist of?

Back 37

nose, pharynx, larynx.

Front 38

What does the lower division of the respiratory system consist of

Back 38

trachea, bronchial tree, alveoli.

Front 39

What is the purpose of the respiratory mucosa?

Back 39

Located in the nose. Contains pseudostratified, ciliated columnar epithelium. Warms, cleanses, humidifies air. goblet cells. Very rich blood supply in the lamina proporia. Very opening of nostrils has thicker, more durable stratified squamous epithelium.

Front 40

Where is the nasal conchae and what does it do?

Back 40

Three tissue folds supported by bone that protrude from the lateral wall from the nasal cavity. Increases air turbulance and ensures contact with the walls; aids in warming the air and humidifying the air.

Front 41

What are the three regions of the pharynx?

Back 41

nasopharynx-- pseudostratified columnar epithelium, tonsils, down to uvula.

oropharynx -- food, air passage. stratified epithelium. tonsils. uvula to epiglottis.

laryngopharynx -- stratified epithelium. Food and air. becomes lower respiratory tract.

Front 42

Describe the larynx

Back 42

cartilaginous chamber that contains vocal chords to create sound. contains glottis and epiglottis.

Front 43

Describe the difference between the glottis and epiglottis.

Back 43

The glottis is the opening itself which consists of vocal chords on either side of it (adducted). The epiglottis consists of elastic cartilage and covers the trachea when you swallow.

Front 44

How do you change the pitch of your voice?

Back 44

Altering the tautness/vibration frequency of the vocal chords. Larger vocal chords = deeper voice. Laryngitis causes thickening of the vocal chords = lower sound.

Front 45

Describe the anatomy of the trachea.

Back 45

highly cartilaginous tube anterior to esophagus. C-shaped structure of hyaline cartilage (keeps from collapsing). Lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelium to aid in mucous secretion.

Front 46

Describe the anatomy of the lung.

Back 46

rest on diaphragm, compress against clavicles. Blood vessels and bronchi pass through medial surface. Lymphatic vessels and nerves pass through medial surface. "roof of lung." Stroma contains elastic tissue, and therefore lungs compress automatically.

Front 47

Describe how the lungs are subdivided.

Back 47

Left: 2 lobes --> 8 lobules --> bronchopulmonary segments.

Right: 3 lobes --> 10 lobules --> bronchopulmonary segments.

Front 48

What features change as the bronchi become bronchioles?

Back 48

Cartilage disappears, smooth muscle becomes prominent, cilia thins, mucous production lessens.

Front 49

Describe how the bronchi are divided.

Back 49

2 bronchi --> 5 secondary (lobar) bronchi (3 on right, 2 on left) --> 18 tertiary bronchi (1 to each bronchopulmonary segment) Maintain elasticity but go from c-shaped to plate cartilage.

Front 50

What do bronchioles consist of?

Back 50

smooth muscle, no cartilage, capable of constriction and dilation. *Primary way in which we regulate air flow* ciliated cuboidal epithelium.

Front 51

What do the terminal bronchioles consist of?

Back 51

Mark the end of the conducting division. Ciliated epithelium, but no mucous production.

Front 52

Where it the difference between the respiratory and the conducting division of the respiratory system?

Back 52

Terminal bronchioles and the respiratory bronchioles.

Front 53

Describe the respiratory bronchioles.

Back 53

Mark the beginning of the respiratory division. Alveoli protrude from the wall, and thus gas exchange occurs. Branch and produce alveolar ducts--> alveolar sacs --> alveoli. Consist of simple squamous epithelium.

Front 54

What are alveolar ducts?

Back 54

Elongated structures that are thin-walled and have alveoli along the wall.

Front 55

Describe the general alveolus.

Back 55

small, thin-walled pouches. simple squamous epithelium. Surrounded by capillaries. Comprise a majority of respiratory division.

Front 56

What are the three primary types of alveoli, and what do they do?

Back 56

Squamous alveolar cells -- flat cells in which gas diffuse -- majority of alveolus.

Great alveolar cells -- cuboidal cells that produce a pulmonary surfactant. break up water so lung doesn't collapse.

Alveolar macrophages -- collect up debris and take up pathogens.

Front 57

What is the respiratory membrane and what does it do?

Back 57

membrane across which gas exchange occurs. Consists of two layers of squamous cells and a shared basement membrane.

Front 58

What is the respiratory membrane composed of?

Back 58

Alveolar wall, single layer of squamous cells, and a basement membrane. Air also needs to go through the boundry of the RBC

Front 59

Describe the pleurae.

Back 59

Serous membranes that covers the lungs. Visceral covers lungs and pleural covers thoracic cavity. Inferior end of the pleural pleurae attaches to diaphragm to pull lungs with inhalation. No air in-between.

Front 60

What are the three functions of the pleurae?

Back 60

1. Reduce friction so there is no pain.

2. Assist with lung inflastion so there is no collapse. Surface tension between the two pleura enable lungs to stay open.

3. Compartmentalize the lungs. Each lung is separate from every other organ.

Front 61

What is a pneumothorax?

Back 61

pathological condition in which you introduce air into the pleural cavity. The seal will break between the two cavities and lungs will collapse. Life-threatening. Caused by knife wound, infection from inside lung, gunshot, etc.

Front 62

What are some general principles to pulmonary ventilation?

Back 62

A pressure gradient must be present. Air flow is directly proportional to this pressure gradient. Air flow is inversely proportional to resistance. (Boyle's law) Air pressure is inversely proportional to it's volume.

Front 63

What changes in the respiratory system to create air flow?

Back 63

The volume of the lungs, and therefore the pressure inside the lungs.

Front 64

What happens during inspiration?

Back 64

Inspiratory muscles contract -->thoracic cage enlarges --> lungs enlarge --> pressure drops --> air flows in(diaphragm, intercostals). Parietal pleura adhere to thoracic cage, visceral pleura adhere to parietal and lungs, with pressure of about 757mmHg. Pressure in lungs drops to 754 mmHg.

Front 65

Why does the film in-between the pleurae cause cohesion?

Back 65

The film is polar and therefore causes H-H bonding, cohesion between water molecules.

Front 66

What happens during expiration?

Back 66

Inspiratory muscles relax --> elastic tissues recoil--> thoracic cage returns to normal --> lung volume decreases --> pressure rises above atmospheric pressure. Intrapulmonary pressure: 763 mmHg, interparietal 756 mmHg.

Front 67

What is the difference between active and quiet breathing?

Back 67

Quiet breathing is a more passive process. During active breathing, the pressure in the lungs can be up to 30 mmHg higher in order to maintain O2 rate.

Front 68

What is the residual volume?

Back 68

"stale air" left in the lungs that has less O2 concentration.

Front 69

Describe the diaphragm and what it does.

Back 69

The prime mover of passive pulmonary ventilation. Divides the thoracic and abdominal cavities. When relaxed, it is dome shaped, and when contracted, it flattens.

Front 70

Describe the intercostals and what they do.

Back 70

The expand the rib cage and assist with inspiration. They are short muscles, extending rib to rib. External and internal layers run perpendicular to each other.

Front 71

Describe some of the accessory muscles used during active expiration.

Back 71

Used to further expand thoracic cavity. Part of internal intercostals pull vigorously down on ribs. Abdominal muscles push against the organs, which presses on the diaphragm, which compresses lungs.

Front 72

Describe some the acessory muscles used during active inspiration.

Back 72

Muscles elevate the ribs/sternum.
1. Sternocleidomastoid
2. Scalenes
3. Pectoralis Minor

Front 73

How does the diameter of the bronchioles influence the resistance of airflow?

Back 73

As the tubes get smaller, resistance increases. These are the primary control of resistance due to the smooth muscle in the wall. (sympathetic division).

Front 74

What can cause dilation and constriction of the bronchioles?

Back 74

Dilation can be stimulated by increased CO2 levels, EP, and NOR. Constriction can be caused by parasympathetic division, cold air, asthma, irritants.

Front 75

How does pulmonary compliance influence the resistance of airflow and how is it reduced?

Back 75

Affects the ease at which lungs expand as the rib cage expands. Can be reduced by a degenerative disease, such as tuberculosis, black lung, and emphysema.

Front 76

How does surface tension in the alveoli influence airflow?

Back 76

Alveoli are covered in a surfactant that is necessary to prevent alveoli from collapsing in on one another. If this surfactant is not available, the alveoli will collapse due to the hydrogen bonding of the water molecules in the alveoli and reduces surface tensions. Infants can have reduces surfactant.

Front 77

What are three ways in which air resistance is influenced in the lungs?

Back 77

*Diameter of bronchioles, pulmonary compliance, surface tension in alveoli.

Front 78

Why does residual volume stay in the lungs?

Back 78

So the alveoli won't collapse. Mixes with fresh O2 air, so slightly lower O2 levels.

Front 79

What is the alveolar ventilation rate? (AVR)

Back 79

The amount of air entering the alveoli per minute. Amount of air potentially used for gas exchange .

Front 80

What is the average alveolar ventilation rate?

Back 80

Tidal volume 500 mL. Dead space 100 mL. 350 mL AVR per breath x 12 breaths per minute = 4200 mL per minute. Edema will decrease this number.

Front 81

What is partial pressure of a gas as opposed to atmospheric pressure?

Back 81

Partial pressure is the measure of the proportion of a given gas in a mixture. The gradient for gas diffusion is based on it's partial pressure. Atmospheric pressure is the sum of all partial pressures in the air (Dalton's law)

Front 82

How does the composition of air change as it moves through the respiratory tract?

Back 82

Partial pressure of water vapor increases. Partial pressure of oxygen decreases. Partial pressure of Carbon dioxide increases.

Front 83

What is the efficiency of alveolar gas exchange affected by?

Back 83

Steepness of the pressure gradient (higher pressure, easier gas exchange)

Solubility of gases themselves. CO2 is very soluble in water.

Membrane thickness -- alveoli and capillaries are very thin. Edema causes thickness

Membrane surface area -- more SA better diffusion rate. Emphesema causes alveoli to rupture and scar tissue to form, thus lower SA.

Front 84

What is ventilation perfusion coupling?

Back 84

Coupling in order to have the best oxygen supply to the best blood flow. More oxygen goes is unloaded to active parts of the body. Matching alveolar ventilation and blood flow in capillaries.

Front 85

What happens during poor ventilation?

Back 85

Partial pressure of oxygen in the blood will decrease. Local vasoconstriction will occur in the areas where poor ventilation is occuring. This will minimize blood flow to that part of the lung.

Front 86

What happens during good ventilation?

Back 86

Partial pressure of blood oxygen will increase. An automatic response of vasodilation occurs to increase flow. High O2 levels are a sign of inactive tissues.

Front 87

What are the two ways oxygen is transported in the blood?

Back 87

In the plasma (1.5%) and through hemoglobin (98.5%)

Front 88

What affects the affinity of oxygen to hemoglobin?

Back 88

Partial pressure of oxygen. High partial pressure of oxygen leads to loading and low partial pressure of oxygen leads to oxygen unloading. 4 oxygen per hemoglobin. 40 mmHg in resting systemic tissues and 15 mmHg in active tissues.

Front 89

How is CO2 transported in the blood?

Back 89

CO2 + H2O forms carbonic acid --> bicarbonate. This reaction is reversible and and 90% of CO2 is transported this way.

Front 90

What is systemic gas exchange?

Back 90

Diffusion of O2 and CO2 across systemic capillary wall along their pressure gradients.

Front 91

What happens to CO2 during internal (systemic) gas exchange?

Back 91

CO2 diffuses into the blood capillary as O2 diffuses out. CO2 then reacts with the water in the plasma to create bicarbonate and H+. This occurs mostly in the RBC due to availability of anhydrase. Bicarbonate is moved out of cell with the chloride ion shift.

Front 92

What happens during the chloride shift and why does this happen?

Back 92

Keeps the bicarbonate levels low in the cell so more bicarbonate can be created. Chloride enters via antiport. This keeps the cell in electrical equilibrium. H+ binds to Hemoglobin and prevents further binding of O2 until the partial pressure gradient shifts. Enhances CO2 loading and unloading.

Front 93

What happens during external respiration as CO2 returns to the alveoli?

Back 93

Reverse directions --> bicarbonate to carbonic acid to CO2, then affinity for O2 increases as partial pressure for O2 increases and H+ is released from hemoglobin. Reverse in the chloride shift.

Front 94

What are some conditions favoring oxygen unloading?

Back 94

Low partial pressyre oxygen and high partial pressure carbon dioxide. Elevated temperature (more ATP, higher demand O2), presence of 2,3-bisphosphogylcerate (important part of fermentation), GH, EP, NP, testosterone, T4 all increase metabolism, and a low pH.

Front 95

What are the conditions favoring CO2 loading?

Back 95

Haldane effect -- deoxyhemoglobin binds more CO2 than oxyhemoglobin. Deoxyhemoglobin also buffers more H+ than oxyhemoglobin which promotes carbonic acid to bicarbonate.

Front 96

Why is the respiratory system considered rhythmic?

Back 96

Receives signals from somatic nervous system that repeatedly stimulate the ventilatory muscles (diaphragm, intercostals) for continual respiration.

Front 97

What nerves are the signals carried along for respiration?

Back 97

phrenic and intercostal nerves.

Front 98

Describe the unconscious control of the respiratory center.

Back 98

Medulla and pons contain integrating centers that send signals for muscle contraction and relaxation. Generate the basic depth and rate of ventilation.

Front 99

What are the three types of receptors that receive input for the unconscious control centers?

Back 99

Stretch (resist overinflation), chemo, and irritant (coughing mechanism).

Front 100

Where is the conscious control center of the respiratory center located?

Back 100

motor cortex of the cerebrum.

Front 101

When does the conscious control center override the unconscious control centers?

Back 101

speaking, forming words, holding breath, etc.

Front 102

What nerve causes the unconscous control center to override the concious control center?

Back 102

Phrenic nerve.