Anatomy And Physiology Exam 1

Front 1

Function of the PM

Back 1

A physical barrier
regulates exchange with environment and responds to environmental outputs via receptors.
provides structural support (via juncitons)
All functions achieved via phospholipid bilayer

Front 2

Components of the phospholipid bilayer

Back 2

2 layers of lipids (heads out, tails in)
Composed of INTEGRAL and PERIPHERAL proteins

Front 3

Integral proteins

Back 3

Proteins imbedded into the phospholipid bilayer.

Front 4

Peripheral proteins

Back 4

Proteins on the surface of the phospholipid bilayer.

Front 5

The Cytosol is composed of what two types of fluid.

Back 5

Intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid

Front 6

Composition of Intracellular Fluid

Back 6

High K ions, Low Na ions.
- High concentration of proteins, carbs, amino acids, and lipids.
Proteins --> enzymes; carbs, AA, and lipids are for energy.

Front 7

Composition of Extracellular Fluid

Back 7

Low K ion and High Na ions
Low concentration of proteins
NO concentration of AA, lipids, or carbohydrates.

Front 8

Explain Protein Synthesis

Back 8

DNA --> RNA --> Proteins
DNA --> RNA is transcription
RNA --> Proteins is translation
Proteins the fold in the ER, packaged, labeled and exit in transport vesicles. If they are to LEAVE the cell, they would take part EXOCYTOSIS.

Front 9

What is protein degradation?

Back 9

Old proteins are destroyed.

Front 10

What part of the cell breaks down protein? Why does it break the proteins down?

Back 10

The Lysosome is in charge of destroying proteins.
This could be due to damaged organelles or foreign materials (i.e. bacteria and pathogens).

Front 11

What can diffuse through the Plasma Membrane

Back 11

- Small lipids move directly through.
Small or charged particles or water particles require channels.
Large proteins require carriers
Pumps require ATP will move substances against gradient.

Front 12

Simple Diffusion

Back 12

No ATP (passive)
Moves along concentration gradient (high to low)
Alcohol, lipids, fatty acids, oxygen, and carbon dioxide.
Fat soluble can cross the hydrophobic bilayer

Front 13

Channel-Mediated Diffusion

Back 13

NO ATP
- Substances move along gradient
- Integral protein channel provides bilayer for water-soluble moleucles.

Front 14

Channel transport

Back 14

Transports Water ions
Water soluble molecules require channels.

Front 15

Osmosis

Back 15

Diffusion of water
If solutes cannot move through the cell, water will dilute the solute.
- Cells adjust to changing solute concentrations.
(High to low)

Front 16

Tonicity definition

Back 16

how a solution affects a cell.

Front 17

Isotonic definition

Back 17

Same internal/external concentrations

Front 18

Hypotonic

Back 18

Water moves in (bloats).

Front 19

Hypertonic

Back 19

Water moves out (shrivels).

Front 20

Carrier-Mediated Transport

Back 20

Can be active OR passive.
Is specific to one action (a one-carrier job)
Co-transport (symport)
Counter-transport (antiport).

Front 21

Passive Carrier-Mediated Transport

Back 21

Carrier Proteins
Specially shaped receptors
Binds to a specific protein so that it can move into a receptor to be moved into the cell (i.e. glucose).

Front 22

Primary Active Transport

Back 22

- Against gradient
- ATP is required.
Ion pumps require energy to move through the cell.
Antiport ex - sodium/potassium channels require ATP

Front 23

Secondary Active Transport

Back 23

"Piggy backing"
- Gradient set by the Primary Active Transport
- Glucose sodium Cotransporter (glucose rides a sodium gradient to enter the cell) --> does not directly use the ATP to move through.

Front 24

Neurons basic functions

Back 24

Communicates
Integrates INformation
Controls body processes.

Front 25

What components of the body are composed of neurons?

Back 25

Brain
Spinal cord
Nerves
Sensory structures

Front 26

Parts of the neuron

Back 26

Dendrites
Soma
Axolemma
Telodendria
Synaptic terminals
Axon hillock
`

Front 27

How do neurons communicate?

Back 27

Dendrites receive info --> decisions are made at the Axon Hillock --> the axon delivers the info --> Terminals then send the message to the next cell via the synapse (presynaptic --> postsynaptic).

Front 28

Types of membrane potential

Back 28

Resting Potential
Graded Potential
Action Potential

Front 29

basics of Resting potential

Back 29

All neural activity will begin at rest
- Stimulus is required to activate cell (synaptic activity/info processing will activate it).

Front 30

basics of Graded potential

Back 30

Deviation from rest
-Graded potential weakens as distance from stimulus increases.
Vary as opposed to being all-or-none.

Front 31

basics of action potential

Back 31

All or non only occurs if stimulus is strong enough.
- if graded potential is strong enough, it will be activated.
Neurons action potential occurs in the axon and the effect is consistent through the length of the axon.

Front 32

Resting membrane potential (ICF and ECF - composition; voltage; permeability).

Back 32

ECF and ICF differ in ionic composition.
Permeability is ion specific
ICF will have a voltage of -70 mV

Front 33

Chemical (passive) force on the PM

Back 33

Potassium out and sodium in.

Front 34

Electrical forces on the PM

Back 34

ICF is negatively charged
ECF is positive --> potential is crated by separation of charge.
Resting membrane potential is -70mV in most cells.
Flow of charged particles occurs when channels open.

Front 35

Electrochemical gradient

Back 35

Sum of chemical and electrical forces.

Front 36

Electrochemical force of K+: chemically and electrical

Back 36

Chemical
High concentration of potassium inside
Pressure for potassium to diffuse outside
Electrical
Positive charge of potassium outside
Pressure for potassium to diffuse inside.

Front 37

Electrochemical force on Sodium: chemically and electrically

Back 37

Chemical:
High concentration of sodium outside
Pressure for sodium to move inside.
Electrical:
Positive charge: outside
Pressure for sodium to move inside.

Front 38

Sodium Potassium Exchange Pump

Back 38

Pump uses energy to maintain/restore gradients to resting conditions.
-always fighting leak channels.
-A pump moves 2 potassium IN and 3 sodium out (to maintain a higher concentration of potassium inside).

Front 39

Is electrochemical gradients a form of potential energy?

Back 39

Yes! It temporarily changes in permeability release energy.
This stimulation can change the permeability of Active channels (gated channels)
This stimulation will allow cells to commmunicate.

Front 40

Chemically gated channel

Back 40

ACh must attach to a binding site which will open the channel and allow the receptor into the cell.

Front 41

Voltage gated channel

Back 41

When voltage increases from -70mV to -60mV, the channels opens to allow receptors in. When the channel increases to +30mV, the gate closes.

Front 42

Mechanically gated channel

Back 42

When pressure is applied to the channel, it will open. When pressure is removed, it will close.

Front 43

Are dendrites chemically gated or voltage gated? How about Axon and the telodendria?

Back 43

dendrites are chemically gated.
axon and telodendria is voltage gated.

Front 44

When chemically gated channels open...what happens?

Back 44

The voltage changes and a graded potential is produced.

Front 45

What are the two choices a neuron has once a Graded/local potential is produced and it is no longer at rest?

Back 45

Depolarization - more positive than rest
Hyper-polarization - more negative than rest.

once the stimulus has been removed, it will reset "repolarization".

Front 46

How do neurons communicate?

Back 46

If graded potential reaches (-60 to -55 mV), action potential will be fired.
Graded potential is the sum of depolarization and hyperpolarization events in cell body.

Front 47

Action potential properties

Back 47

All-or-none
threshold of -60 to -55 mV
cannot be stopped --> hillock to terminals
refractory period follows

Front 48

Action potential step by step

Back 48

1. Threshold triggers voltage gated Na channels to open in axon.
2. Axon depolarizes as sodium enter ICF
3. Axon reaches maximal depolarization and so Na channels inactivate and K channels activate and open.
4. K leaves ICF so that the cell can begin to repolarize.
5. K channels close, but are slow --> slightly negative before back to normal.

Front 49

What does the Refractory period determine?

Back 49

Direction

Front 50

What does the myelination determine?

Back 50

Speed
Unmyelinated slow continuous propagation.
Myelinated fast (5m/s) - saltatory propagation (leaping).

Front 51

Affects and causes of Demyelination (also treatments).

Back 51

- pain/loss of sensation in extremities
- loss of motor control, paralysis
-Causes: heavy metal poisoning kills the glia
- Leather disease (Diphtheria) - bacterial infection, kills schwann cells.
-Multiple sclerosis (scarring) - recurrent demyelination that worsens overtime.
- Guillain-Barre (autoimmune; PNS, extremities first)
Treatments: steroids, immune suppressants.

Front 52

Propagation after the terminal...

Back 52

Action potential stops at the terminal...signal must cross space and so the electrical turns to chemical.

Front 53

The Synapse is...

Back 53

-two cells coming together
-Presynaptic cell (a neuron which sends chemical information)
- Postsynaptic cell (can be another neuron or just another cell and it must have receptors).

Front 54

Events at a synapse

Back 54

1. action potential reaches axon terminal
2. depolarization at terminal triggers Ca entry.
3. Ca singals exocytosis of the NT
4. NT crosses cleft
5. NT binds receptors on post-synaptic cell.
6. Postsynaptic cell is stimulated, then NT is removed.

Front 55

Cholinergic and Andrenergic

Back 55

Cholinergic: acetylcholine, Ach as the NT
Norepinephrine, adrenergic synapses.

Front 56

Neuronal integration and decision making

Back 56

a post-synaptic cell can have a lot of receptors (cholinergic and andrenergic) so it will respond to NTs released from different types of neurons and will make a "decision". The result will be:
EPSP (excitatory postsynaptic potential).
IPSP (inhibitory postsynaptic potential).

Front 57

Spatial vs. Temporal Summation

Back 57

Spatial summation: sources of stimulation arrive simultaneously but at different locations.
Temporal summation: a membrane receives two depolarizing stimuli from the same source in rapid succession.

Front 58

Central nervous System - anatomical components

Back 58

Spinal cord and brain
- functions of the CNA are to process and coordinate:
--Sensory information and execute motor commands.
-- Higher functions, intelligence, memory, learning, and emotion.

Front 59

PNS - anatomical components

Back 59

All neural tissue except CNA
- mainly composed of nerves (bundles of axons)
-Peripheral nerves (cranial and spinal nerves).

Front 60

PNS - functional divisions

Back 60

- brings sensory info to CNS eceptors and nerves.
- Brings out (efferent) motor information from CNS to target organs (muscles and glands)

Front 61

The two divisions of the PNS are...

Back 61

Somatic nervous system
Autonomic Nervous system

Front 62

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

Back 62

skeletal muscles; voluntary

Front 63

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Back 63

Auto = self
-visceral motor (smooth muscles, glands; involuntary)
Antagonistic Divisions (parasympathetic;sympathetic)

Front 64

Explain spinal reflexes

Back 64

CNS "make decisions"
- motor output decisions are based on sensory INPUT
Brain deals with the complex decisions and the Spinal cord handles the reflexes.

Front 65

Withdrawal Reflex steps

Back 65

1. Stimulus arrives (receptor is activated)
2. ACtivation of sensory neuron (graded potential, propagation of action potential)
3. Information processing (presynaptic cell releases NT to postsynaptic cell; EPSP activates postsynaptic cell)
4. Activation of motor neuron (NT activates EPSP or IPSP)
5. Response of peripheral effector (motor neuron releases NT; effector responds).

Front 66

innate reflex

Back 66

simple; withdrawal
complex; chewing, suckling, eye-tracking

Front 67

Acquired/Learned Reflex

Back 67

enhanced by repetition (muscle memory)
breaking while driving, athletic skills.

Front 68

Somatic reflex

Back 68

involuntary control of voluntary muscles

Front 69

Visceral reflex

Back 69

autonomic**

Front 70

Monosynaptic reflex

Back 70

sensory direct to motor (Fast)

Front 71

Polysynaptic reflex

Back 71

many neurons (slow); more complex.

Front 72

Withdrawal is what type of reflex?

Back 72

Flexor reflex: motor output is on the same side as sensory input.

Front 73

What is the crossed extensor?

Back 73

Motor output is on opposite side
- complements flexor reflex (i.e. stepping on a lego, you move the weight onto your other foot to lift the foot that has been injured).

Front 74

Contralateral reflex

Back 74

response on opposite side of the body

Front 75

Babinski Reflex

Back 75

Plantar reflex, a curling of the toes is seen in healthy adults
The Bainski sign - occurs when the foot moves up instead of curling down (it is normal in infants, but bad in adults)
Used to test CNS injuries.

Front 76

Brains affect on spinal reflexes

Back 76

Requires a conscious effort
Can oppose (INHIBIT) or fine-tune (FACILITATE)

Front 77

Autonomic Nervous System

Back 77

Unconscious regulation of visceral function
-routine homeostatic adjustments in body's systems

Front 78

Divisions of the ANS

Back 78

- Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
--often oppose each other (excitation vs. inhibition)
--work inependently (some organs only have sympa or para)
- can work together
--Usually PARASYMPATHETIC DOMINATES
--SYMPATHETIC ACTIVATES WITH STRESS

Front 79

What section of the brain contains an Autonomic control center?

Back 79

The hypothalamus

Front 80

Sympathetic Activity

Back 80

- heightened mental alertness
- increased metabolic rate
- reduced digestive and urinary function
- activation of energy reserves
- increased respiratory rate/dilation of respiratory passages
- increased heart rate and blood pressure
- activation of sweat glands
(these are all responses to stress)

Front 81

Parasympathetic Activity

Back 81

- Decreased metabolic rate
- Increased digestive and salivary gland secretion
- Increased digestive motility
- Simulation of urination and defecation
- Decreased heart rate and blood pressure

Front 82

Cholinergic synapses

Back 82

release and respond to acetylcholine

Front 83

The adrenal gland

Back 83

secretes epinephrine
aka adrenaline
- it is also part of the nervous system

Front 84

Skeletal muscle functions

Back 84

movement
posture
guard entrances and exits (digestive and urinary system control)
Maintain temp/produce heat
support and protect soft tissues
store nutrients

Front 85

Are skeletal muscle fibers small or big?

Back 85

they are large - multinucleate (many nuclei) that adapt to make many copies of muscle proteins and enzymes.

Front 86

Sarcolemma

Back 86

plasma membrane
-change in transmembrane potential is first step in triggering contraciton.

Front 87

Sarcoplasm

Back 87

Cytoplasm

Front 88

Transverse tubules (T-tubules)

Back 88

help spread action potentials.

Front 89

how many NMJ does a muscle fiber have? (NMJ = neuromuscular junction)

Back 89

One NMF/every muscle fiber.

Front 90

Myofibrils

Back 90

smaller structures in a muscle cell.
contain myofilaments and tintin (thin myofilamints are ACTIN and thick ones are MYOSIN).
shorten, and cause CONTRACTIONS.
anchored to sarcolemma.

Front 91

Sarcomere

Back 91

Functional unit of muscle.
Units of thick and tinfilaments to stabilize contraction.
10,000 sarcomeres/myofibril

Front 92

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

Back 92

Tubular network around each myofibril
conneted to t-tubules
large Calcium chambers called TERMINAL CITERNAE

Front 93

what are terminal cisternae

Back 93

large calcium chambers

Front 94

Calcium concentration in ICF and in SR

Back 94

ICF: low
SR: high
Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the intracellular fluid to trigger muscle contractions.

Front 95

Sliding filaments and contraction requires what type of control?

Back 95

Neural control...stimulation from a motor neuron is required.

Front 96

Excitation-concentrationcoupling

Back 96

Step 1: calcium release
Step 2: Thick and thin filament interactions in the sarcomere.
Step 3: Muscle fiber contraction (ATP required)
Step 4: TEnsion production.

Front 97

The Sarcomere: Actin

Back 97

ball shaped proteins that are strung together, has an "active site" that will do soemthing when exposed.

Front 98

tropomyosin

Back 98

covers the top of the actin

Front 99

troponin

Back 99

regulatory protein that repeat itself on the tropomyosin.

Front 100

Thin filaments of the sarcomere are...

Back 100

actin
tropomyosin
troponin

Front 101

Thick filaments of the sarcomere are...

Back 101

myosin
titin