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112 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Joints (articulations)
Weakest parts of skeleton
Articulation
Site where two or more bones meet
Functions of joints
Give the skeleton mobility
Hold the skeleton together
Classifications of joints
Structural focus: The material binding bones together
Whether or not a joint cavity is present
Structural Classifications
Fibrous
Cartilaginous
Synovial
Functional classification is based on the amount of:
movement allowed by the joint
Functional classes of joints
synathroses-immovable
amphiarthroses-slightly moveable
diarthroses-freely moveable
Fibrous structural joints
bones are joined by fibrous tissues
no joint cavity
most are immovable
three types: sutures, syndesmoses, and gomphoses
Fibrous structural joints: Sutures
Occur between bones of skull
Comprised of interlocking junctions completely filled with connective tissue fibers
Bind bones tightly together, but allow for growth during youth
In middle ae, skull bones fuse and are called synostoses
Fibrous structural joints: syndesmoses
Bones are connected by a fibrous tissue ligament
Movement varies from immovable to slightly variable
Examples include the connection between the tibia and fibula, and the radius and ulna
Fibrous structural joints: gomphoses
The peg in socket fibrous joint between a tooth and its alveolar socket
The fibrous connection is the peridontal ligament
Cartilaginous Joints
Articulating bones are united by cartilage
Lack a joint cavity
Two Types: Sychondroses and Symphses
Cartilaginous joints: Synchondroses
A bar or plate of hyaline cartilage unites the bones
All are synarthrotic
Examples: epiphyseal plates of children, joint between the costal cartilage of the first rib and the sternum
Cartilaginous joints: symphyses
hyaline cartilage covers the articulating surface of the bone and is fused to an intervening pad of fibrocartilage
Amphiarthrotic joints designed for strength and flexibility
Examples include intervertebral joints and the pubic symphysis of the pelvis
Synovial Joints
Joints where articulating bones are seperated by a fluid containing joint cavity
All are freely moveable diarthroses
Ex. All limb joints, most joints of the body
Synovial Joints: General Structure
Have all the following:
Articular Cartilage
Joing (synovial) cavity
Articular Capsule
Synovial Fluid
Reinforcing ligaments
Synovial Joints: Friction Reducing structures
Bursae
Common where ligaments, muscles, skin, tendons, or bones rub together.
Tendon Sheath
Bursae
Flattened, fibrous sacs lined with synovial membranes and containing synovial fluid
Tendon Sheath
Elongated bursa that wraps completely around a tendon
What classifies Synovial Joints ability to move?
Articular surfaces-shape determines what movements are possible
Ligaments-unite bones and prevent excessive or undesirable motion
Synovial Joints: Muscle tone is accomplished by:
Muscle tendons across joints acting as stabilizing factors
Tendons that are kept tight at all times by muscle tone
Synovial Joints: Movement
Origin-attachment to the immovable bone
Insertion-attachment to the moveable bone
Described as movement along transverse, frontal, or sagittal planes
Gliding movements
One flat bone surface glides or slips over another similar surface
Examples: Intercarpal and intertarsal joints, and between the flat articular processes of the vertebrae
Rotation
The turning of a bone around its own long axis
Ex. Between the first two vertebrae, hip and shoulder joints
Types of Synovial Joints: Hinge Joints
Cylindrical projections of one bone fits into a trough-shaped surface on another
Motion is along a sngle plane
Uniaxial joints permit flexion and extension only
Ex. Elbow and interphalangeal joints
Plane Joint
Articular surfaces are essentially flat
Allow only slipping or guiding movements
Only examples of nonaxial joints
Pivot Joints
Rounded end of one bone protrudes into a "sleeve" or ring, composed of bone (and possibly ligaments) of another
Only uniaxial movement allowed
Examples: Joint between the axis and the dens, and the proximal radioulnar joint
Condyloid or Ellipsoidal Joints
Oval articular surface of one bone fits into a complementary depression in another
Both articular surfaces are oval
Biaxial joints permit all angular motions
Ex: radiocarpal (wrist) joints, and metacarpophalangeal (knuckle) joints
Saddle Joints
Similar to condyloid joints but allow greater movement
Each articular surface has both a concave and a convex surface
Ex. Carpometacarpal joint of the thumb
Ball and Socket Joints
A spherical or hemispherical head of one bone articulates with a cuplike socket of another multiaxial joints permit the most freely moving synovial joints
Ex. shoulder and hip joints
Synovial Joints: Knee
Largest and most complex joint of the body
Allows flexion, extension, and some rotation
Three joints in one surrounded by a single joint cavity
(femoropatellar joint, lateral and medial tibiofermoral joints)
Synovial Joints: Shoulder (glenohumeral)
Ball and socket joint in which stability is sacrificed to obtain greater freedom of movement
Head of humerus articulates with the glenoid fossa of the scapula
Synovial Joints: Shoulder STABILITY
Weakness is maintained by:
thin, loose joint capsule
four ligaments: coracohumeral, and three glenohumeral
Tendon of the long head of biceps, which travels through the intertubercular groove and secures the humerus to the glenoid cavity
Rotator cuff (four tendons) that encircles the shoulder joing and blends with the articular capsule
Synovial Joints: Elbow
Hinge joint that allows flexion and extension only
Radius and ulna articulate with the humerus
Compromised of: annular ligament
Ulnar collateral ligament
Radial collateral ligament
Synovial Joints: Hip (coxal) joint
Ball and socket joint
Head of the femur articulates with the acetabulum
Good range of motion, but limited by the deep socket and strong ligaments
Temporomadibular Joint
Mandibular condyle articulate with the temporal bone
Two types of movement-hinge (depression and elevation of mandible) side to side (lateral excursion, grinding of teeth)
Sprains
The ligaments reinforcing a joint are stretched or torn
Partially torn ligaments slowly repair themselves
Completely torn ligaments require prompt surgical repair
Cartilage Injuries
When overstressed, causes snap and pop
Common aerobics injury
Repaired with arthroscopic surgery
Dislocations
Occur when bones are forced out of alignment
Usually accompanied by sprains, inflammation, and joint immobilization
Cause by serious falls and are common sports injuries
Subluxation-Partial dislocation of joint
Inflammatory and Degenerative Conditions
Bursitis
Tendonitis
Arthritis
[Osteoarthritis,
Rheumatoid Arthritis,
Gouty Arthritis]
Bursitis
An inflammation of a bursa, usually caused by a blow or friction
Symptoms are pain and swelling
Treated with anti-inflammatory drugs; excessive fluid may be aspirated
Tendonitis
Inflammation of tendon sheaths typically caused by overuse
Symptoms and treatment are similar to bursitis
Arthritis
More than 100 different types of inflammatory or degenerative diseases that damage the joints
Most widespread crippling disease in the US
Symptoms-Pain, stiffness, and swelling of a joint
Acute forms are caused by bacteria and are treated with antibiotics
Osteoarthritis (basics)
Most common chronically; often called "wear and tear"
Affects women more than men
85% of all Americans develop OA
More prevelant in the aged, and is probably related to the normal aging process
Osteoarthritis (course)
Reflects the years of abrasion and compression causing increased production of mealloproteinases enzymes that break down cartilage
As one ages, cartilage is destroyed more quickly than it is replaced
The exposed bone ends thicken, enlarge, form bone spurs, and restrict movement
Joints most affected are the cervical and lumbar spine, fingers, knuckles, knees, and hips
Osteoarthritis (treatments)
Slow and irreversible
Treatments include:
mild pain relievers, along with moderate activity
Magnetic Therapy
Glucosamine sulfate decreases pain and inflammation
Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)
Chronic, inflammatory, autoimmune disease of unknown cause, with an insidious onset
Usually arises between the ages of 40 to 50, but may occur at any age
Signs and symptoms include joint tenderness, anemia, osteoporosis, muscle atrophy, and cardiovascular problems.
The course is marked with exacerbations and remissions
Rheumatoid Arthritis (Course)
Begins with synovitis of the affected joint
Inflammatory chemicals are inappropriately released
Inflammatory blood cells migrate to the joint, causing swelling
Inflammed synovial membrane thickens into a pannus
Pannus erodes cartilage, scar tissue forms, articulating bone ends connect
The end result, ankylosis, produces bent, deformed fingers
Rheumatoid Arthritis (Treatment)
Conservative therapy-aspirin, long term use of antibiotics, and physical therapy
Progressive treatment-anti-inflammatory drugs or immunosuppressants
The drug Enbrel, a biological response modifier, neutralizes the harmful properties of inflammatory chemicals
Gouty Arthritis
Deposition of uric acid crystals in joints and soft tissues, followed by an inflammation response
Typically, gouty arthritis affects the joint at the base of the great toe
In untreated gouty arthritis, the bone ends fuse and immobilize the joint
Treatment-colchicine, nonsteroidal anti inflammatory drugs, and glucocorticoids
Types of muscle tissue
Skeletal
Cardiac
Smooth

Differ in structure, location, function, and means of activation
Muscle Fibers
Skeletal and smooth muscle cells are elongated
Muscle contraction depends on two kinds of myofilaments
Actin and Myosin
Sarcolemma
Muscle plasma membrane
Sarcoplasm
Cytoplasm of a muscle cell
Muscle Prefixes
myo-
mys-
sarco-
Skeletal Muscle tissue
attach to and cover the bony skeleton
Has obvious stripes called striations
Is controlled voluntarily (by concious control)
Contracts rapidly but tires easily
Responsible for overall body motility
Extremely adaptable and can exert a range of force
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
Occurs only in the heart
Striated
Not voluntary
Contracts at a fairly steady rate set by the hearts pacemaker
Neural controls allow the heart to respond to changes in the bodily needs
Smooth Muscle Tissue
Found in walls of hollow visceral organs, such as the stomach, urinary bladder, and respiratory passages
Forces food and other substances through internal body channels
Not striated
Involuntary
Skeletal muscle (composed of)
Each muscle is a discrete organ composed of muscle tissue, blood vessels, nerve fibers, and connective tissue
Skeletal Muscle: Nerve and blood supply
Each muscle is served by one nerve, an artery, and one or more veins
Each skeletal muscle fiber is supplied with a nerve ending that controls contraction
Contracting fibers require continuous delivery of oxygen and nutrients via arteries
Wastes must be removed via veins
Skeletal Muscle: Attachments
Most skeletal muscles span joints and are attached to bone in at least two places
When muscles contract the movable bone, the muscles insertion moves toward the immovable bone, the muscles origin.
Skeletal Muscles:
Attach:
Directly
or
Indirectly
Directly-epimysium of the muscle is fused to the periosteum of a bone
Indirectly-connective tissue wrappings extend beyond the muscle as a tendon or aponeurosis
Myofibrils
Densely packed, rodlike contractile elements
Make up most of the muscle volume
Arrangement of myfibrils within a fiber is such that a perfectly aligned repeating series of dark A bands and light I bands is evident
Sarcomeres
Smallest contractile unit of a muscle
The region of a myofibril between two successive Z discs
Composed of myofilaments made up of contractile proteins
Myofilaments: Banding pattern
Thick filaments-extend the entire length of an A band
Thin filaments-extend across the I band and partway into the A band
Z disc-coin shaped sheet of proteins (connectins) that anchors the thin filaments and connects myofibrils to one another
Thin filaments do not overlap thick filaments in the lighter H zone
M lines appear darker due to the presence of the protein: desmin
Ultrastructure of Myofilaments: thick filaments
Composed of the protein myosin
Each myosin molecule has a rod like tail and two globular heads.
Tails-two interwoven, heavy polypeptide chains
heads-two smaller, light polypeptide chains called cross bridges.
Ultrastructure of Myofilaments: Thin filaments
Chiefly composed of the protein actin
Each actin molecule is a helical polymer of globular subunits called G actin
The subunits contain the active sites to which myosin heads attach during contraction
Tropomyosin and troponin are regulatory subunits bound to actin
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
Elaborate, smooth endoplasmic reticulum that mostly runs longitudinally and surrounds each myofibril
Paired terminal cisternae form perpendicular cross channels
Functions in the regulation of intracellular calcuium levels
Elongated tubes called T tubules peneterate into the cell's interior at each A band-I band junction
T tubules associate with the paired terminal cisternae to form triads
T Tubules
Continuous with the sarcolemma
They conduct impulses to the deepest regions of the muscles
Impulses signal for the release of Ca2+ from adjacent terminal cisternae
Triad Relationships
T tubules and SR provide tightly linked signals for muscle contraction
A double zipper of integral membrane proteins protrudes into the intermembrane space
T tubule proteins act as voltage sensors
SR foot proteins are receptors that regulate Ca2+ release from the SR cisternae
Sliding filament model of contraction
Thin filaments slide past the thick ones so that the actin and myosin filaments overlap to a greater degree
In the relaxed state, thin and thick filaments overlap only slightly
Upon stimulation, myosin heads bind to actin and sliding begins
Each myosin head binds and detaches several times during contraction, acting like a ratchet to generate tension and propel the thin filaments to the center of the sarcomere
As this event occurs throughout the sarcomeres, the muscle shortens
Supination
flipping hand (starts with hand vertical and thumb down, ends with hand vertical and thumb up)
Pronation
Starts with hand vertical, thumb on top, ends with hand vertical, thumb on bottom
Inversion
angling foot inward
Eversion
angling foot outward
Protraction
bringing jaw most forward
Retraction
Taking jaw most inward
Elevation
jaw fully closing
Depression
fully opening mouth
Opposition
bringing thumb and pointer finger together to form a circle
Flexion
bending movement that decreases the angle of the joint
Extension
joint angle is increased
Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion
up and down movement of the foot
Abduction
Movement away from the midline
Adduction
Movement toward the midline
Circumduction
Movement describes a cone in space
Synovial Joints-Range of motion

Nonaxial
slipping movements only
Synovial Joints-Range of motion

Uniaxial
Movement in one plane
Synovial Joints-Range of motion

Biaxial
Movement in two planes
Synovial Joints-Range of motion

Multiaxial
movement in or around all three planes
Synovial Joints: Movement

Origin
attachment to the immovable bone

Described as movement along transverse, frontal, or sagittal planes
Synovial Joints: Movement

Insertion
attachment to the moveable bone

Described as movement along transverse, frontal, or sagittal planes
Subluxation
Partial dislocation of joint
Functional characteristics of muscle tissue

Excitability or irritability
the ability to recieve and respond to stimuli
Functional characteristics of muscle tissue

Contractility
the ability to shorten forcibly
Functional characteristics of muscle tissue

Elasticity
the ability to recoil and resume the original resting length
Functional characteristics of muscle tissue

Extensibility
the ability to be stretched or extended
Muscle function
Skeletal
responsible for all locomotion
Muscle function
Cardiac
responsible for coursing the blood throughout the body
Muscle function
Smooth
helps maintain blood pressure, and squeezes or propels substances (ie. food or feces) through organs
General Muscle Functions
Maintain posture, stabilize joints, and generate heat.
Skeletal Muscle Sheaths
Endomysium
Fine sheath of connective tissue composed of reticular fibers surrounding each muscle fiber
Skeletal Muscle Sheaths
Perimysium
fibrous connective tissue that surrounds groups of muscle fibers called fascicles
Skeletal Muscle Sheaths
Epimysium
an overcoat of dense regular connective tissue that surrounds the entire muscle
Myofilaments:
Thick filaments
extend the entire length of an A band
Myofilaments:
Thin
extend across the I band and partway into the A band

Thin filaments do not overlap thick filaments in the lighter H zone
Myofilaments:
Z discs
coin shaped sheet of proteins (connectins) that anchors the thin filaments and connects myofibrils to one another
M lines appear darker due to:
the presence of the protein, desmin.
Organization of Skeletal Muscle
Muscle (organ)
Fascicle (portion of muscle)
Muscle fiber (cell)
Myofibril or fibril (complex organelle composed of bundles of myofilaments)
Sarcomere (a segment of a myofibril)
Myofilament or filament (extended macromolecular structure)
Fascicle
Elongated multinucleate cell; banded (striated) appearance
Organization of Skeletal Muscle:
Connective Tissue Wrappings

Muscle
Fascicle
Muscle Fiber
Muscle-externally by epimysium
Fascicle-surrounded by a perimysium
Muscle Fiber-surrounded by the endomysium