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78 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the anatomical position?
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Body standing erect, facing observer, eyes front, arms at the side with the palms of the hands and tips of toes facing forward
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General terms - Ventral, dorsal, anterior, posterior
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Ventral: Away from the backbone toward the front
Dorsal: Toward the backbone or back of body Anterior: Toward the front Posterior: Toward the back |
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General terms part 2 - Superior, inferior, cranial, caudal
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Superior: Upper, toward the top of the body
Inferior: Lower, toward the bottom of the body Cranial/Rostral: Toward the head Caudal: Toward the tail |
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General terms, part 3 - External, Internal, superficial, deep
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External: Toward the outer surface
Internal: Toward the inner surface Superficial: Toward the surface Deep: Away from the surface |
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General terms, part 4 - Medial, lateral, proximal, distal, central, peripheral
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Medial: Toward the axis or midline
Lateral: Away from the axis or midline Proximal: Toward the body or root of extremity Distal: Away from the body or root of extremity Central: Situated at the center Peripheral: toward the outward surface |
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Define the body planes
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Sagittal: vertical plane that cuts the body into R and L halves
Frontal or Coronal: vertical plane that cuts the body into front and back or anterior/posterior halves Transverse: horizontal cut into upper and lower halves or superior/inferior |
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Epithelial tissue
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a. Squamous: flat, pavement-like
b. Cuboidal: Intermediate, square-like c. Columnar: rod-like |
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Parts of a cell
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1. Centrosome: Associated with cell division mitosis / meiosis
2. Mitochondria: Power house / provides energy 3. Endoplasmic Reticulum: Forms the structural matrix of the cytoplasm |
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Connective tissue - loose
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scattered fibers, soft intercellular substance
1. Areolar: beneath the skin 2. Adispose: big concentration of fat cells |
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Connective tissue - dense
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1. Tendon - tough, nonelastic cords. Attaches muscles to bones, cartilage or other muscles
a). aponeurosis: type of tendon that is like a sheet 2. Ligament - abundance of elastic type fibers, attaches bone to bone, bone to cartilage and cartilage to cartilage 3. Fascia - supports and surrounds the entire body below adipose and areolar tissue, surrounds muscles and muscle |
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Connective tissue - cartilage
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1. Hyaline - rigid blue and white, forms the framework for the respiratory tract
2. Elastic - elastic fibers, yellow, opaque, external ear, ear canal, some cartilage of the larynx, epiglottis, Eustachian tube 3. Fibrocartilage - dense network of collagenous fibers and cartilage, found in joints and intervertebral discs |
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Connective tissue - bone
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All bones are covered with a tough membrane = periosteum
Types: 1. Compact - very dense outer layer 2. Spongy - inside of bone holes/pores filled with bone marrow |
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Muscle tissue
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a. Striated: “striped”
Long, multi-nuclear cells, capable of sliding past each other voluntary muscles Move the body, comprises most of the muscles of the body b. Smooth: involuntary digestive tract, blood vessels, bronchial tubes c. Cardiac: found only in the heart blend of both striated and smooth involuntary |
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Nervous tissue
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a. Central (CNS) - Brain (protected by the skull), spinal Cord (protected by the spinal vertebrae)
b. Peripheral (PNS) 1. Cranial Nerves (12 pairs) most nuclei on brainstem, pass through base of skull, sensory, motor or mixed 2. Spinal Nerves (31 pairs) exit spinal cord at intervertebral foramen c. Autonomic (ANS) - controls the internal environment of the body, digestion, breathing, heart Sympathetic: “fight or flight” Parasympathetic: “rest and digest” |
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Vascular tissue
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Erythrocytes: Red blood cells, O2 to cells
Leukocytes: White blood cells, fight infection Platelets: allows clotting Plasma: watery part of blood Lymph - Lymphatic system waste drainage system |
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Difference between biological and nonbiological function
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Function necessary for survival vs not necessary for survival
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Name and describe the parts of the respiratory tract
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Upper (Also known as the vocal tract . Biological Function: filter, warm and moisten air prior to entering the lower respiratory tract. Non-biological Function:Speech) and lower respiratory tract () , and the larynx ()
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Cavities of upper respiratory tract
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1. Nasal Cavity - Nose, nasal passageways
2. Oral Cavity - Mouth 3. Pharyngeal Cavity - Throat, musculomembranous tube that extends from the base of the skull to the top of the esophagus. Divided into three parts: nasopharynx, oropharynx (soft palate to the hyoid bone), and laryngopharynx (hyoid bone to the entrance to the larynx) |
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Lower respiratory tract
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Made of 15-20 hyaline cartilage rings stacked on top of each other & separated by fibro-elastic membrane
Horseshoe shaped, with the opening to the posterior Posterior wall is shared with the anterior wall of the esophagus Extends from the cricoid cartilage cricotracheal ligament down to a bifurcation at the mainstem bronchi Trachea is lined with mucous membranes It is Ciliated w/ Epithelial lining & Bronchi A. Primary branches (2) - mainstem, tubes which extend from the trachea to the lungs Right: larger and more direct, shorter in length more in line with the trachea than the left bronchi supplies the larger right lung What are the clinical implications to this Mainstream/Primary bronchi Clinical implication: Foreign material that falls into the trachea is more likely to enter the right bronchi and thus the right lung than the left Aspiration: foreign material (such as food, liquid, stomach contents, etc.) that has entered the trachea or lung When encountering a patient with PNA, a RLL infiltrate will often indicate aspiration vs. a LLL “communicable” PNA |
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Larynx
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The dividing point between the upper and lower respiratory tract
Composed of cartilage and muscle Contains the vocal folds Biological function: Protective mechanism Highly specialized valvular mech that opens and closes the airway Compressed air releases to expel mucous or objects from airway Thoracic fixation |
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Lower respiratory tract - Secondary branches, bronchioles, alvealor sacs, lungs
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B. Secondary branches - Asymmetric, Right (3) Left (2) due to lung differences. Tertiary branches - Symmetrical (8-10), supply segments of each lung
d. Bronchioles: One tertiary bronchi divides up to 24 Symmetrical Final division About 1 mm in diameter Gas exchange takes place at this level E. Alvealor Sacs - Walls of terminal bronchioles and alvealor sacs are pitted with small depressions called alveoli that are surrounded by capillaries Allows for red blood cells to exchange CO2 for O2 3. Lungs - Located in thoracic cavity, sticks to the cavity, due to the Pleural sac, an airtight double-walled membrane Maintains the air pressure, puncturing one wall of one lung will not affect the other lung (Pneumothorax) Composed of two irregular cone-shaped structures Match the size of the thoracic cavity Spongy, porous and highly elastic Few smooth (involuntary) muscle fibers Lungs are passive - cannot exert force, only elastic Right lung is larger than the left due to the heart occupying part of the left side of the thorax Right is shorter due to the liver on the right side, inferior Right lung has three lobes, left lung has two - the lungs are just superior to the diaphragm |
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Major body cavities
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Thoracic cavity/chest - contains heart, lungs, respiratory airways
Skeletal Framework: Anteriorly: Sternum, ribs Posteriorly: Vertebrae/Spinal Column Superiorly: Pectoral Girdle Abdominal cavity contains: stomach, small and large intestines, pancreas, liver, gallbladder, kidneys, spleen Skeletal Framework: Posteriorly: Vertebrae Inferiorly: Pelvic Girdle |
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Spinal column
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Vertebrae
1. Spinous process - Posterior projection (thorn-like) 2. Corpus - Anterior body, bulk of the vertebrae 3. Transverse process, paired projections, allow for muscle and ligament attachments, points of articulation with ribs 4. Vertebral Foramen (hole) - Spinal Cord Discs: Fibral Cartilage between the vertebrae to cushion them |
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Cervical vertebrae
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7, Located in the neck region
Small in size Transverse foramina (holes) for veins and blood vessels C1 Atlas - Resembles a ring of bone, no body or spinous process C2 Axis - Pivot around which C1 and skull rotate Upper projection of the body |
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Thoracic vertebrae
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12, Similar to main example
Mid-back region, articulate with ribs (12) Costal facets: Ridge on the transverse process, provides points of attachments for the ribs |
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Lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal vertebrae
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Lumbar - 5, Massive bodies for weight bearing, lower back region
Sacral - 3 or 4, fused into one plate, ossified intervertebral discs. Tailbone, 3-4 fused vertebrae, articulate with the sacrum by a small disc |
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Rib cage
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Sternum and ribs
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Sternum
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Located on anterior, superior thoracic wall. Three parts:
1) Manubrium a. Superiorly: suprasternal, or jugular notch b. Lateral to the notch are the articulatory facets for the left and right clavicles c. Also contains bilateral articulatory facets for first rib 2) Sternal angle - Small ridge dividing the manubrium and the corpus 3) Corpus or Body - Bilateral articulatory facets for ribs two through seven 4) Xiphoid process - Hangs from the inferior border of the sternum |
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Ribs
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Twelve pairs of ribs
Major parts: a. Head - articulates with the body of the vertebrae b. Neck - short section between the head and shaft c. Angle - beginning of a sharp anterior turn d. Body or Shaft - bulk of rib All ribs attach posteriorly to the corresponding thoracic vertebrae Ribs 1-7 (true ribs) - Bony portion courses laterally from the thoracic vertebrae, course medially and downward. At the lowest point the osseous rib becomes costal cartilage, which articulate directly with sternum R-1 Manubrium R-2 Sternal Angle R-3 to R-7 Corpus Ribs 8-10 (false ribs) - Indirect shared attachment with R-7 Ribs 11-12 (floating ribs) - No anterior attachment |
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Pectoral girdle
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Clavicle, scapula, and glenoid fossa,
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Clavicle
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Collar bone - Curved shape like an S, medial end articulates with the manubrium
Lateral end articulates with the scapula |
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Scapula and glenoid fossa
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Scapula: Shoulder bone, slightly triangular. Parts:
a) acromion (higher) clavicle attaches here b) coracoid process (lower) hooked projection Glenoid fossa: Armpit/socket, humerus (upper bone of arm) attaches here |
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Pelvic girdle
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Ilium, ischium, and pubis
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Ilium
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Bulk of hip bone posteriorly
Articulates with the border of the sacrum Fan-shaped plate, upper margin forms iliac crest The iliac crest has two notable landmarks: Anterior superior iliac spine Posterior superior iliac spine Articulates with sacrum at sacroiliac joint, contributes to the formation of the acetabulum |
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Ischium
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Anterior, smaller, rectangular, below Ilium
Courses inferiorly from the ilium to terminate as the ischial tuberosities |
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Pubis
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Anterior, medial. The pubic bones course medially towards each other from the ischium and ischial tuberosities to meet at the pubic symphysis
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Classify the muscles of breathing
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FUNCTIONAL: Inhalation, exhalation
ANATOMICAL:Thoracic muscles of inhalation are primarily in the thorax Some accessory muscles of the neck involved They are active during inhalation for quiet breathing and during deep inhalation Abdominal muscles of exhalation are primarily in the abdomen Active during forced exhalation and while speaking, NOT active during exhalation for quiet breathing |
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Talk about the diaphragm
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One of few non-paired muscles of the body
Bilateral nerve and blood supply Shaped like an inverted bowl/parachute Slopes higher on the right Strong, thin musculotendinous tissue separating the thoracic and abdominal cavities Central tendon at the top anterior of the diaphragm Aponeurosis Resembles a tri-leaf, several layers of fibers (strength) Serves as the insertion for the three muscular portions of the diaphragm a) Sternal portion b) Costal portion c) Vertebral portion |
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Portions of the diaphragm
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a) Sternal portion:
ORIGIN: posterior (inner) surface of xiphoid process Tendinous fibers, shortest in diaphragm COURSE: somewhat superior and medial (posterior) INSERTION: Central tendon (front middle leaflet) b) Costal Portion: ORIGIN: the inner surface of: Ribs 7-12 & the costal cartilages COURSE: sharply superior and then medial towards the central tendon INSERTION: central tendon c) Vertebral Portion: ORIGIN: upper 3-4 lumbar vertebrae and their discs via two stout muscle pillars known as right and left crus COURSE: fibers fan out superior and medially (anterior) INSERTION: central tendon INNERVATION: C3, 4, 5 (keeps the diaphragm alive) Phrenic Nerve FUNCTION: Contraction of the three muscular portions of the diaphragm: Contracts the central tendon to come down and forward Pulls the entire inverted bowl inferiorly Maintains its overall shape Increases the size of the thoracic cavity Simultaneously decreases the size of the abdominal cavity |
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Diaphragm openings
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1) Aortic hiatus: permits the aorta to descend to the abdomen from the thorax
2) Esophageal hiatus: permits the esophagus to pass through the diaphragm to the stomach 3) Foramen vena cava: permits the passage of the inferior vena cava from the lower part of the body to the thorax |
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External intercostal muscles
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ORIGIN: Lower border of the rib above
COURSE: Back: Inferior and lateral Front: Inferior and medial INSERTION: Upper edge of the rib below INNERVATION: Intercostal nerves (T1-T12) FUNCTION:Upper rib cage is fixed, draw the ribs together, moves the ribcage up and out |
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Thoracic muscles of inhalation
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Levator Costalis
Serratus posterior superior Pectoralis major Pectoralis minor Subclavius Serratus anterior |
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Levator costalis
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ORIGIN: C7, T1-T11, transverse processes
COURSE: Inferior and laterally INSERTION: Posteriorly, 1 or 2 ribs below INNERVATION: Spinal (thoracic) nerves FUNCTION: These muscles appear to be a continuation of the external intercostals |
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Serratus posterior superior
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ORIGIN: C7, T1-T3 spinous processes
COURSE: Inferior and lateral INSERTION: Ribs 2-5, near the angles INNERVATION: Spinal nerves T2-T3 FUNCTION: Maybe to elevate ribs 2-5 |
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Pectoralis major
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ORIGIN: Clavicle, sternum, and upper costal cartilages
COURSE: Lateral and superior, with the muscle fibers converging as they approach the humerus INSERTION: Proximal end of the humerus bone of upper arm INNERVATION: Spinal nerves (medial, lateral, anterior thoracic) FUNCTION: Primary: to medially rotate the arm and to adduct the arm Secondary: to draw sternum and R1-6 up, increases thoracic volume |
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Pectoralis minor
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ORIGIN: Anterior, medial portion of ribs 2-5
COURSE: Superior and lateral INSERTION: Coracoid process of scapula INNERVATION: Spinal nerves (medial, lateral, anterior thoracic) FUNCTION: Primary: shoulder extensor Secondary: to elevate ribs 2-5, increases thoracic volume |
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Subclavius
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ORIGIN: junction of R1 and its costal cartilage
COURSE: lateral INSERTION: inferior surface of clavicle, near scapula FUNCTION: maybe to lift R1, to draw shoulder forward and down |
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Serratus anterior
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ORIGIN: lateral portion of R1-9
COURSE: posterior, around the side of the rib cage INSERTION: anterior surface of scapula FUNCTION: maybe to elevate R1-R9, to fixate scapula |
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Neck accessory muscles of inhalation
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Sternocleidomastoid
ORIGIN: 1. Anterior surface of the manubrium 2. Superior surface of the medial end of the clavicle COURSE: Superior, posterior, lateral. Quickly unite to form one muscle mass INSERTION: Mastoid process of the temporal bone and base of occipital bone INNERVATION: Spinal portion of accessory nerve and parts of C2 FUNCTION:Primary: rotates head and flexes the neck toward the thorax Secondary: raises the sternum, increasing thoracic cavity Scalenes ORIGIN: Transverse process of C2-C7 COURSE: Inferior and slightly lateral INSERTION: R1 and R2 INNERVATION: C5-C8 FUNCTION: Raise first two ribs |
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Muscles of exhalation
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External oblique
Internal oblique Transverse abdominus Rectus abdominus |
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Abdominal aponeurosis
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ORIGIN: attaches superiorly to lower fibers of pectoralis major, to the xiphoid process of sternum, and to adjacent costal cartilages
COURSE: inferior INSERTION:inferiorly to anterior iliac spine and pubic symphysis Fibers interlace at the Linea Alba, a thick, fibrous band down the middle of abdominal aponeurosis |
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External oblique
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ORIGIN: Outer surface and lower border of R4-R12
COURSE: Inferior and medially INSERTION: Anterior iliac crest and abdominal aponeurosis INNERVATION: Spinal nerves FUNCTION: Compresses abdominal contents, pushes against the diaphragm to vertically decrease thoracic cavity/volume |
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Internal oblique
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ORIGIN: Anterior iliac crest
COURSE: Superior and medially INSERTION: Inferior border of costal cartilages R8-R12 and abdominal aponeurosis INNERVATION: Spinal Nerves FUNCTION: Compresses abdominal contents |
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Transverse abdominus
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ORIGIN: Inner surface of R6-12, Anterior half of iliac
COURSE: Horizontal, medial INSERTION: Abdominal aponeurosis INNERVATION: Spinal nerves FUNCTION:Compress abdominal contents |
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Rectus abdominus
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ORIGIN: Crest of the pubic bone
COURSE: Superiorly INSERTION: Xiphoid process, Costal cartilages of R5-R7 INNERVATION: Spinal nerves FUNCTION: Compresses abdominal contents, flexes spinal column |
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Accessory muscles of thoracic exhalation
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Internal intercostals
Subcostals Transverse thoracis Serratus posterior inferior |
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Internal intercostal muscles
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ORIGIN: Lower border of the rib above
COURSE: Back: Inferior and Medial Front: Inferior and Lateral INSERTION: Upper ridge of rib below R2-R12 INNERVATION: Intercostal nerves (T1-T12) FUNCTION: Depress the ribs |
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Subcostals
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ORIGIN: Inner surface of each rib, close to the vertebral column
COURSE: Superior and lateral INSERTION: Inner surface of the rib 1 or 2 ribs above INNERVATION: Intercostal nerves FUNCTION: Presumed to depress ribs |
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Transverse thoracis
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ORIGIN:Posterior surface of body of sternum, posterior surface of costal cartilages 5-7
COURSE: Fan out superiorly and laterally INSERTION: Inner surface of ribs 2-6 INNERVATION: Upper 6 Thoracic Intercostal nerves FUNCTION: Presumed to depress ribs |
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Serratus posterior inferior
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ORIGIN: Via an aponeurosis from T11-T12 and L1 to L3
COURSE: Superior and lateral INSERTION: Inferior borders of R8-R12 INNERVATION: T10-T12 nerves ACTION: Presumed to depress lower ribs |
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Accessory abdominal muscle of exhalation
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Quadratus lumborum - ORIGIN: Posterior iliac crest
COURSE: Superior INSERTION: Transverse processes of L1-L4 and lower border of R12 INNERVATION: L1-L3 nerves ACTION: Depress R12 |
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Pressure, volume, closed and open system
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Pressure: Force per unit of area acting perpendicular to the surface (Unit of measure for speech pressure is cm H20
3-5 cm H20 to produce soft speech, 7-10 cm H20 for conversational speech, 20 cm H20 for loud speech, Sneeze can generate up to 200 cm H20) Volume: The size of a cavity or the amount of air in a cavity Unit of measure is cubic centimeters (cc) which is equal to 1 milliliter (mL) Closed system: An isolated system which does not have any interaction with its external environment Open system: A physical system that interacts with other systems (i.e., it interacts with the external environment) |
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Boyle's law
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In a gas, pressure and volume are inversely proportional to one another. If the gas is kept at a constant temperature &
if the gas is in a closed system. As volume goes up, pressure goes down & as volume goes down, pressure goes up |
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Kinetic theory of gases - how does it relate to respiration?
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Gases = large numbers of individual molecules engaged in unceasing motion
In a vessel: molecules move at high speeds, collide with each other and walls of vessel results in force on the walls Provided volume and temperature are constant, force on the walls is a function of the number of molecules in the vessel. More molecules = more force. Air flows from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure to balance the pressure - relates to respiration because air in lungs/out of lungs does this constantly. |
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Explain pleural linkage
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Relative negative pressure in the intra-pleural space causes the parietal and visceral
pleura to adhere to each other = pleural linkage Functions to adhere the lungs to the inside of the ribs and to the superior surface of the diaphragm |
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The Importance of Pleural Linkage
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Movement of the thoracic cavity results in movement of the lungs. Because the lungs are highly elastic they easily stretch or compress based on the movement of the thoracic cavity
During inhalation: The volume of the chest cavity increases, the volume inside the lungs increases During exhalation:The volume of the chest cavity decreases, the volume of the lungs decreases |
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Quiet breathing
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Quiet breathing is the kind of breathing you are doing when you are at rest (sitting quietly, sleeping, etc.) Quiet breathing does not include activities such as talking, singing, exercising. Involves lungs, diaphragm, and thoracic muscles
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Forced exhalation and inhalation (know muscles active for each)
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Forced inhalation and exhalation (while exercising, for example) or expelling air fast (cough, blow, loud speech, singing)
Inhalation phase: major muscles of inhalation active & accessory muscles of inhalation may be active Exhalation phase: major muscles of exhalation active & accessory muscles of exhalation may be active |
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Tidal volume of lungs
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The volume of air inhaled and exhaled during any single expiratory cycle. Dependent on activity level - for adults, average resting tidal volume is 500 cc.
Tidal volume would be greater during an activity such as exercise |
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Inspiratory volume of lungs
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The amount of air which can be inhaled beyond what is inhaled in a tidal inspiration
IRV is greater at rest, less during activity |
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Expiratory reserve volume of lungs
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The amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled beyond what is exhaled in a tidal expiration
ERV is greater at rest, less during activity |
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Residual volume of lungs
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The amount of air that remains in the lungs even after a maximum exhalation
RV ranges from 1000 – 1500 cc |
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How to calculate inspiratory capacity
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TV (tidal volume) + IRV = IC
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How to calculate vital capacity
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TV + IRV + ERV = VC
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Functional residual capacity
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ERV + RV = FRC
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Total lung capacity
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TV + IRV + ERV + RV = TLC (around 5000 cc)
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Resting expiratory level
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State of equilibrium in the lungs and the thorax that occurs at about 37% of vital capacity. At max inhalation (100% of vital capacity), both the lungs and the thorax are being held in an artificially expanded state by the muscles of inhalation
Both the lungs and the thorax want to collapse back down (recoil) to a more relaxed state (REL) At maximum exhalation (0% of vital capacity), the thorax is being held in an artificially compressed state by the muscles of exhalation The thorax wants to expand back (recoil) to a more relaxed state (REL) |
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Respiratory patterns for sustained phonation and conversational speech
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Sustained phonation - Contraction of the major and possibly accessory muscles of inspiration for taking in a deep breath, gradual relaxation of the major muscles of inspiration as you start to exhale for phonation from 100% to 55% of vital capacity
Continues when you go below 55% of vital capacity Conversational speech - Contraction of the major and possibly accessory muscles of inspiration for taking in a breath to 60% of vital capacity Gradual relaxation of the major muscles of inspiration as you start to exhale for speaking from 60% to 55% of vital capacity. Continues as you go below 55% of vital capacity |
