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Anatomy and Physiology 1 Test 2

Anatomy And Physiology 1 Test 2

by meandmymount, Feb. 2017

Subjects: Anatomy and Physiology

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	Functions of the Skeletal System	Support Protection Movement Storage Blood Cell Production
	Support Function	Structural support for the body. Framework for the attachment of organs and tissues.
	Protection Function	Ribs, Cranium and Vertebrae protect soft organs
	Movement Function	Bones provide leverage to provide movement
	Storage Function	Minerals and lipids are stored
	Blood Cell Production	Red and white blood cells are produced in the bone marrow
	5 Bone Shapes	Long Flat Irregular Short Sesamoid
	Long Bone Shape/ Location	Long and Slender Bones
	Flat Bone/ Location	Thin, parallel surfaces
	Irregular Bone/ Location
	Short Bone Location	Small and Boxy
	Sesamoid Bone/ Location	Flat, like sesame seeds
	Diaphysis	1- The shaft; made of compact bone
	Epiphysis	3/2- Expanded ends of the bone; made of cancellous (spongy) bone
	Metaphysis	7- Connects the Epiphysis with the Diaphysis
	Medullary Cavity	Inside the compact bone of the diaphysis; contains bone marrow
	Process	Any Projection
	Trochanter	A process where tendons attach; large, rough projection
	Tuberosity	A process where tendons attach; small, rough projection
	Head	Processes where tendons attach; expanded articular end of an epidermis separated by a neck
	Neck	Processes for articulations with adjacent bones; narrow connection
	Condyle	Processes for articulations with adjacent bones; smooth, rounded articular process
	Fossa	Depression; a shallow depression
	Sulcus	Depression; a narrow groove
	Foramen	Opening; A passageway for blood vessels or nerves
	Canal or Meatus	Opening; Passage through the substance of a bone
	Bone Tissue	Bone is a supportive connective tissue
	Bone Cells/ Matrix	Supportive cells and a matrix composed of protein fibers and ground substance Dense matrix that contains calcium phosphate
	Cells of the Skeletal System	Osteocytes Osteoblasts Osteoprogenitor Osteoclasts
	Osteocytes	Mature bone cells, maintain matrix, and occupy lacuna.
	Lacuna	Pockets between layers of matrix which are called lamellae
	Canaliculi	Narrow passages that interconnect lacunae
	Osteoblasts	Immature bone cells that new matrix
	Osteoprogenitor	Stem cells that maintain the osteoblast population
	Osteoclasts	Multinucleated cells that remove and recycle bone matrix, OPPOSE the activity of osteoblasts
	Two Types of Bone Based on Histology	Compact Bone Spongy Bone
	Osteon	(Haversian System) The unit of mature compact bone, osteocytes are arranged in concentric layers around the central canals (Haversian Canals)
	Volkmann's (Perforating) Canals	Run perpendicular and supply blood to deeper osteons and medulla
	Concentrate Lamella	Around central canal
	Interstitial Lamella	Between osteons
	Circumferential Lamella	At the outer and inner surface of the bone
	Periosteum	A membrane with a fibrous outer layer and a cellular inner layer
	Endosteum	An incomplete cellular layer containing osteoblasts, osteoprogenitor cells, and osteoclasts
	Spongy Cancellous Bone	Lamella are NOT arranged in osteons Matrix forms struts and plates called trabeculae Open network, without blood vessels in the matrix In areas where bone is stressed in many directions Lighter than compact bone
	Ossification	The replacement of other tissues with bone tissue Two Types: Endochondral & Intramembraneous
	Endochondral	Cartilage is converted into bone Long bones A lot occurs during fetal development and continues during childhood
	Intramembraneous	Occurs in deeper layers of the dermis and is also called dermal ossification Flat bones of the skull and clavicle
	Appositional Growth (In Diameter)	The growth at the outer surface, cells of the inner layer of the periosteum differentiate into osteoblasts and deposit layers of the bone matrix. Osteoclasts also remove matrix in the inner surface making the medulla larger.
	Factors That Affect Bone Growth	Nutrition Hormones
	Nutrition	Osseous tissue requires a lot of nutrients and thus is highly vascularized Vitamin D: Required for calcium absorption; deficiency in vitamin D makes the bone weak and flexible (Rickets) Vitamin C: Required for collagen synthesis and stimulates osteoblast differentiation; deficiency produces loss of bone mass (scurvy)
	Hormones	At puberty, sex hormones stimulate osteoblasts to produce bone faster than cartilage growth. Bone then "catches up" with cartilage growth and endochondral bone growth stops Estrogen causes faster "catching up" so females are usually shorter than males
	Bone Remodeling	Bones are in constant remodeling, a balance between osteoclasts (constantly removing matrix) and osteoblasts (adding matrix); this dynamic cycle allows bone repair
	Close Fracture	Completely internal and easy to treat
	Open Fracture	Fracture projects through the skin. These are dangerous due to potential infection or excessive bleeding
	Complete Fracture	If the bone is completely separated in two pieces
	Incomplete Fracture	Bone is not completely separated
	Transverse Fracture	Break at right angle to the long axis of the bone
	Comminuted	Bony fragments are produced
	Spiral	Produced by twisting stresses
		Spiral Fracture
		Comminuted Fracture
		Transverse Fracture
	Bone Disorders	Osteopenia Osteoporosis Pituitary Dwarfism Achondroplasia
	Osteomyelitis	Bacterial Infection of the bone marrow
	Osteopenia	Deficiency in ossification due to aging, bones becomes thinner and weaker
	Osteoporosis	Normal function is compromised
	The Axial Skeleton	Along the longitudinal axis of the body Eighty bones (40% of total) 1. Skull 2. Vertebral Column 3. Thoracic Cage
	Skull	8 Cranial and 14 facial Protects the brain (cranial vault) Consists air-filled chambers (sinuses) that make the skull lighter and moisten air
	Facial Bones...	Facial bones protect and support entrances to the digestive and respiratory systems, provide attachment of muscles that control facial expressions
	Sutures	The connections between skull bones. Bones are tied firmly together with dense fibrous connective tissue
	Superior View of the Skull/ Main Bones	Occipital Bone, Parietal Bone (Left and Right), Frontal Bone, and Nasal Bones
	Associated Skull Bones	Auditory ossicles Hyoid bones
	Cranium Bones	Eight Bones Total Occipital Bone (1) Parietal Bones (2) Frontal Bone (1) Temporal Bone (2) Sphenoid Bone (1) Ethmoid (1)
	Facial Bones	Fourteen Bones Total Maxillary Bones (2) Palatine Bones (2) Nasal Bones (2) Vomer (1) Inferior Nasal Concae (2) Zygomatic Bones (2) Lacrimal Bones (2) Mandible Bone (1)
	Posterior View of the Skull
	Lateral View of the Skull
	Anterior View of the Skull
	Paranasal Sinuses
	Interior View of the Skull
	Inferior View of the Skull
	Functions of the Vertebral Column	Provide a column of support, bear the weight of head, neck, and trunk Support for turning head (Atlas- first vertebra) Protects spinal cord Maintain an upright position Together with ribs, forms the thoracic cavity
	Four Major Curves of the Vertebral Column	Cervical Thoracic Lumbar Sacral
	Disorders of the Vertebral Column	Kyphosis Lordosis Scoliosis
	Kyphosis	Thoracic curve is exaggerated (humpback) Causes: osteoporosis, abnormal vertebral growth
	Lordosis	The Lumbar curve is exaggerated May occur during pregnancy
	Scoliosis	Most common Abnormal lateral curvature Due to developmental problems during adolescence
	Vertebra	Body (transfers weight along the axis), arch, processes (spinous, transversal, superior and inferior articular) lamina, and pedicle.
	Interverbal Discs	Pads of fibrous cartilage
	Vertebral Foramen
	Cervical	Most mammals contain 7 Smallest in the vertebral column but largest foramen At this level the spinal cord still contains most of the axons that connect the brain to the rest of the body support the head
	Thoracic	12 Vertebra Articular with ribs "heart-shaped" Larger than cervical vertebra, but foramen is smaller
	Lumbar	Largest 5 Vertebrae Body is thicker, bears the most weight Foreman is triangular
	Sacrum	Fusion of five vertebrae (by age 25-30) Protects reproductive and urinary organs
	Coccyx	Fusion of 3-5 vertebrae Provides attachment for ligaments and muscle from perineal region
	Thoracic Cage consists...	of the thoracic vertebrae, ribs, and sternum
	Thoracic Cage Functions	Protects the heart, lungs and other structure of thoracic cavity Serves as an attachment for breathing muscles
	Ribs	From the vertebra to the wall of thoracic cavity 12 pairs of ribs
	Vertebrosternal	Ribs 1-7
	Vertebrochondral	Ribs 8-10
	Floating Ribs	Ribs 11 and 12
	Sternum	A flat bone that forms in the anterior midline of the thoracic cavity
	Three Thoracic Cage Components	Manubrium (articulates with clavicles) Body Xiphoid Process (palpable landmark of CPR)
	The Appendicular Skeleton	Contains 126 bones of the body Dominated by long bones Limb (upper and lower) bones Supporting elements or girdles (pectoral and pelvic)
		Manubrium Articulates with the clavicles
		Sternal Body
		Xiphoid Process Palpable landmark of CPR
	The Pectoral (Shoulder Girdle)	Arms articulate with the trunk at the pectoral girdle consists of clavicles and scapulae
		The clavicles are "S" shaped bones that originate at the manubrium of the sternum and articulate with the acromion process of the scapula -sternal and acromial ends
		Triangle shaped (superior, medial and lateral borders)
		Glenoid Cavity (Fossa) Part of the Scapula Articulates with the humerus
		Coracoid Process Attachment sites for several muscles Anterior part of the scapula
		Acromion Process Articulates with clavicle Posterior part of the scapula
		Scapular Spine A ridge that crosses the posterior surface pf the body before ending at the medial border
	Acromial end of the clavicle	Facet for articulation with acromion; lateral end of the clavicle
	Sternal end of the clavicle	Medial end of the clavicle
	Upper Limb	Bones of the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand
		Humerus Bone: Bone of the upper arm
	Humerus Head	Articulates with scapula
	Humerus Greater and Lesser Tubercle	Round projections, important for muscle attachment
	Humerus Intertubercular Groove	Between two tubercles (tendon of the latissimus dorsil)
	Humerus Trochlea	"Pulley," medial portion of condyle
	Humerus Capitulum	Lateral "ball" like portion of condyle
	Forearm	The ulna and radius run parallel in the forearm
	Forearm- Ulna	is medial
	Forearm- Olecranon	(Posterior) point of the elbow
	Forearm- Trochlear Notch	Anterior; articulates with the humerus
	Forearm- Ulna Head	(distal end) articulates with radius
	Forearm- Radius Head	Articulates with the capitulum of humerus
	Forearm- Radius	Lateral
	Forearm- Radial Tuberosity	Where biceps attach
	Forearm- Styloid Process	(distal) stabilizes articulation of radius with wrist
	Wrist- Carpal Bones	Contains eight carpal bones Forms two rows
	Hand	Contains five metacarpal bones, labeled I-V starting from lateral (thumb) -14 Phalanges (digit bones); every finger contains a proximal, middle, and distal phalanx (except the thumb which only contains a proximal and distal bone)
	The Pelvic Girdle contains the...	Coxal bones, acetabulum, iliac crest, and obturator foramen
	Coxal Bones	Formed by fusion of three bones: Ilium, Ischium, and pubis
	Acetabulum	Concave socket, articulates with the head of the femur
	Iliac Crest	Most superior ridge
	Obturator Foramen
	Female Pelvis	Pelvic Angle: larger in females (usually 100-degree angle or larger) Pelvic Outlet: Larger in females
	Male Pelvis	Pubic Angle: 90 degrees or less Pelvic Outlet: Smaller than females
	Femur	Longest and heaviest bone in the body
	Femur- Head	Articulates with the acetabulum of the coxal bone
	Femur- Neck
	Femur- Greater and Lesser Trochanter	Attach to large tendons
	Femur- Medial and Lateral Condyles	Participate in the knee joint
		Patella- Forms within the tendon of the quadriceps femoris
		Tibia- the large medial bone of the lower leg
	Tibia- Anterior Margin (Anterior Crest)	Begins at the tibial tuberosity and extends along the surface
	Tibia- Tibial Tuberosity
		Fibula- Slender bone that parallels the tibia
	Fibular Head	Articulates with the tibia
	Lower Leg- Lateral and Medial Malleolus	Lateral (fibula) and Medial (tibia) malleolus provide lateral stability to the ankle
	Ankle	Contains seven tarsal bones
		Talus- transfers the weight from the tibia to the toes
		Calcaneus- heel bone; longest of the tarsal bones
	Achilles Tendon	Attaches to the calcaneus
	Foot Contains...	Five long metatarsal bones and fourteen phalanges
	Five Long Metatarsal Bones	Identified by I-V starting from medial to lateral
	Fourteen Phalanges	Proximal, middle, and distal except the hallux (big toe)
	Ways the skeleton can be used to tell age	Fontanels are not together in very young children Epiphysial- Cartilage in children, line in adult Fusion of bone (ex. sacrum fuses at 25) Bone Density- elderly have lower density, signs of osteoporosis/ osteopenia
	Articulations	Joints where two bones interact
	Articulation Functions	Allow for movement of bones Provide mechanical support ALWAYS A COMPROMISE BETWEEN STRENGTH AND MOBILITY; classified according to function (range of motion) or structure
	Synarthrosis Movement	No movement
	Amphiarthrosis Movement	Little Movement
	Diarthrosis Movement	Free Movement
	Bony Fusion	Between two bones; Synarthrosis (No movement)
	Fibrous Joint	Fibrous tissue between bones; Synarthrosis (No movement) / Amphiarthrosis (Little Movement)
	Cartilaginous Joint	Two bones with cartilage between them; Synarthrosis (No movement) / Amphiarthrosis (Little Movement)
	Synovial Joint	Have a capsule; complex structure; Diarthroses (free movement)
	Four Types of Synarthrosis	Sutures Gomphosis Synchondrosis Synostosis
	Sutures	Located only in the skull; bones are interlocked and bound with fibrous connective tissue. Examples: Coronal, sagittal, and lambdoid sutures
	Frontanels	Soft spots on the head of babies that allow for natural birth
	Gomphosis	Binds the teeth to bony sockets of maxilla and mandible; bound by a fibrous connective tissue called periodont
	Synchondrosis	Rigid, Cartilaginous bridge between two articulating bones; ex. epiphyseal cartilage, vertebrosternal ribs and sternum
	Synostosis	Immovable joint created when two bones fuse and the boundary disappears. Ex. frontal or metopic suture
	Amphiarthrosis	Much stronger than a freely movable joint
	Two Types of Amphiarthrosis Joints	Syndesmosis- Connected by ligament (distal tibio-fibular joint) Symphysis- Connected by a pad of fibrous cartilage (between bodies of vertebral)
	Diarthrosis (synovial)	Typically at the end of long bones
	Diarthrosis Components- Articular Capsule	Articular Capsule- An Envelope surrounding the joint; Outer layer is composed of fibrous connective tissue; Synovial membrane (inner layer) lines the wall of the cavity and secretes synovial fluid
	Diarthrosis Components- Synovial Fluid	A clear viscous solution that fills the capsule and serves for lubrication, nutrition, and padding
	Diarthrosis Components- Articular Cartilage	Covers the bone to reduce friction (functions like a sponge)
	Linear Movement	Gliding motion; carpal bones
	Angular Movement	Point stationary but shaft changes angle relative to the surface; most common in the human body
	Rotational Movement	Point remains stationary while the shaft, held at less than a 90-degree angle, can move in a complete circle ex. shoulder
	Extension	Straightening movement that increases the angle between body parts. When a joint can move forward or backward, extension refers to movement in the posterior direction.
	Flexion	Opposite of extension
	Hyperextension
	Abduction	Movement away from the midline of the body
	Adduction	Movement toward the midline of the body
	Supination	Rotation of the forearm turning the palm of the hand outwards so that it faces away from the body
	Pronation	The forearm is a rotational movement where the hand and upper arm are turned inwards
	Eversion vs. Inversion	Inversion and eversion refer to movements that tilt the sole of the foot away from (eversion) or towards (inversion) the midline of the body.
	Depression vs. Elevation	Depression is the downward movement of structures of the body; Elevation is the upward movement of structures in the body
	Retraction vs. Protraction	Protraction is movement of a body part in the anterior direction, i.e. being drawn forwards. The movement of protraction is the opposite of the movement of retraction (backwards)
	Opposition	Brings the thumb and the little finger together
	Lateral Flexion	Movement of the head or trunk laterally away from the midline of the body
	Gliding Synovial Joint	Planar, relatively flat surfaces slide across one another, limited movement. Slight nonaxial or multiaxial movement; example: intercarpal and intertarsal joints, vertebrocostal joints
	Hinge Joint	Permits angular movement in a single plane. Monaxial movement; example: elbow joint, knee joint, ankle joint
	Pivot Joint	Monoaxial joint that allows only rotation. Monaxial (rotation) movement; Examples: Atlas/ axis
	Ellipsoidal Joint	Oval articular face nestles in a depression, allows biaxial movement. ex. metatarsophalangeal joints
	Saddle Joint	Each articular is concave in along one axis and convex along the other; allows biaxial angular motion, but not rotation. Example: first carpometacarpal joint
	Ball and Socket Joint	Round head of one bone rests within a cup-shaped depression of another; allows both angular and rotational movement; example: shoulder joint, hip joint
	Shoulder Joint	Ball and socket joint that permits the greatest mobility The most frequently dislocated joint (probes principle) Large articular capsule Stabilized by ligaments and muscles
	Elbow Joint	Hinge joint that involves the humerus, ulna and radius Humero- ulnar joint is the strongest, where the trochlea of humerus articulates with the trochlear notch of ulna Reinforced by strong ligaments
	Hip Joint	Ball and socket joint Very mobile The acetabulum accommodates the head of the femur Stabilized by a strong articular capsule and supporting ligaments Almost complete bony socket
	Knee Joint	Knee transfers weight from the femur to the tibia Hinge type joint but it is very complex Permits flexion, extension and when partially flexed, limited rotation Three articulations, two tibial-femur and one between patella-femur Menisci are fibrous cartilage pads that provide cushion and lateral stability 7 ligaments stabilize the knee
	Joint Disorders	Common due to heavy "wear and tear," especially in older individuals
	Arthritis	All diseases that affect synovial joints (always involves damage to the articular cartilage)
	Osteoarthritis	(degenerative arthritis) usually occurs above 60 years of age. The leading cause of chronic disability
	Rheumatoid Arthritis	Inflammation of the joints due to autoimmune diseases, bacteria, viruses, allergies, and genetic factors
	Gouty Arthritis	Formation of crystals of uric acid in the synovial joints which interfere with function
	Treatment of Joints	Exercise Physical Therapy Anti-inflammatory drugs Surgery
	Cartilaginous Joints	Lack a synovial cavity and allow little to no movement bones held together by either hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage Two types: synchondroses and symphyses
	Synovial Joint- Articular Cartilage	A thin layer of hyaline cartilage that covers the articulating surfaces of the bones reducing friction and absorbing shock
	Synovial Joint- Articular Capsule	Surrounds each synovial joint consisting of two layers, the fibrous outer layer and the synovial membrane
	Synovial Joint- Fibrous Outer Layer	Dense irregular connective tissue with abundant collagen fibers and is continuous with the periosteum of the articulating bones
	Synovial Joint- Synovial Membrane	Composed of areolar connective tissue with abundant elastic fibers
	Synovial Joint- Synovial Cavity	A small space filled with synovial fluid (a thick colorless liquid that lubricates the joint surfaces and absorbs shock. Also supplies oxygen and nutrients to and removes carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes from the chondrocytes of the articular cartilage
	Menisci	Also called articular disks, fibrocartilage pads that act as shock absorbers and provide a better fit between articulating surfaces
	Types of Synovial Joints	Plane Joint Hinge Joint Condylar Joint Pivot Joint Saddle Joint Ball- and- Socket Joint
	Plane Joint	(Gliding joint) consists of flat articular surfaces that slide over one another, nonaxial; intercarpal joints, intertarsal joints, and the sacroiliac joints
	Hinge Joint	One concave articular surface and one convex articular surface articulate to allow movement around one axis, uniaxial; elbow, the knee, interphalangeal joints and the temporomandibular joint
	Pivot Joint	The rounded or conical articular surface of one bone articulates with a shallow depression on another bone, uniaxial movement; atlantoaxial joint and the proximal radioulnar joint
	Condylar Joint	An oval-shaped condyle articulates with an elliptical cavity, biaxial; metacarpophalangeal joints and the atlanto-occipital joint
	Saddle Joint	In which two saddle-shaped articulating surfaces articulate with each other, biaxial movement; only exists between the metacarpal of the thumb and the trapezium of the wrist
	Ball- and- Socket Joint	The ball-shaped head of one bone, multiaxial movement; the shoulder and hip joints

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