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431 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What are the major functions of blood?
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- Transportation
- Regulation - Protection |
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What sorts of things are transported in the blood?
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Gases and Hormones
|
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What sort of things are regulated by blood?
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Body temperature and clotting
|
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What protection does blood provide?
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Immune system (WBC)
|
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What are the components of blood? What percentage do they make up?
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- Plasma (liquid) - 55%
- Formed elements (solids) - 45% |
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What are the components of the plasma?
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- Proteins (albumin, globulins, fibrinogen)
- Electrolytes (Na+, K+, Cl- Ca2+, etc) - Dissolved gases (O2, CO2, etc) - Nutrients and wastes |
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What are the functions of the main proteins in the plasma?
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- Albumin - controls blood volume and BP
- Globulins - immunoglobulins (antibodies), HDL/LDL (shuttle cholesterol) - Fibrinogen - clotting |
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What are the formed elements of the blood?
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- Red blood cells
- White blood cells - Platelets |
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What are the characteristics of red blood cells?
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- Incomplete cell because they don't have nuclei
- Packed with Hemoglobin - Shuttles O2 (and CO2 a bit; CO displaces Hb) |
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What determines an individual's blood type?
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What proteins are on the cells: A, B, A&B, or none, Rh+ or Rh-
|
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What is anemia?
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- A decrease in the O2 carrying capacity of RBC
- Due to reduced number of RBC and/or abnormal Hb |
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What characterizes the disease sickle-cell anemia?
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- RBC are misshapen due to mutation of Hb (when the Hb releases O2 the cell changes shape)
- These malformed cells get stuck in small vessels - RBCs survive only 10-20 days instead of 120 |
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What are WBCs also called? What are the two main categories? Which are specific?
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WBC = Leukocytes
1. Granulocytes - nonspecific 2. Agranulocytes - specific |
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What are the different types of granulocytes? What is their general function?
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- Neutrophils
- Basophils - Eosinophils - Responsible for non-specific destruction of antigens (foreign substances that enter the body) and damaged tissues |
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What is the function of a neutrophil? How is it classified?
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- Contains lysosomal enzymes
- Responsible for phagocytosis and destruction of damaged cells, bacteria, etc. - Forms pus - A type of granulocyte (non-specific WBC) |
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What is the function of an eosinophil? How it it classified?
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- Contains lysosomal enzymes
- Destroys parasites via exocytosis of enzymes - Also secretes during an allergic reaction - A type of granulocyte (non-specific WRC) |
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What is the function of a basophil? How is it classified?
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- Contains heparin and histamine
- Anticoagulant (inhibits clotting) - Promotes leakiness of the vessels - A type of granulocyte (non-specific WRC) |
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What are the different types of a granulocytes? What is their general function?
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- Monocytes
- Lymphocytes - Important for specific immunity |
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What is the function of a monocyte? How is it classified?
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- Enters connective tissues to become macrophages, which phagocytose anything
- A type of agranulocyte (specific WRC) |
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What is the function of a lymphocyte? How is it classified?
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- Part of immune system (B cells and T cells)
- Responds to specific antigens - A type of agranulocyte (specific WRC) |
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In general, what do B lymphocytes do?
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- Respond when bacteria invade
- Secrete antibodies (immunoglobulins) |
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In general, what do T lymphocytes do?
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Respond when viruses invade
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What are platelets and what do they contain?
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Cell fragments that contain clotting factors
|
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What is hemostasis?
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- The control of bleeding
- To function, blood must be a fluid, damage to blood vessels can lead to massive loss of blood |
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What are the three steps to hemostasis (stopping bleeding)?
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1. Platelet clumping at the site of injury - temporary plug
2. Vasoconstriction - blood vessel constricts 3. Clotting - clotting factors released from the platelets and fibrinogen sticks to form blood clot |
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What is the normal size of the heart?
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- Approximately the size of a fist
- 250-350g - <1 lb. |
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What is the normal position of the heart?
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In between the vertebral column and sternum
|
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Why is it advantageous that the heart is between the vertebral column and sternum?
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During chest compressions, the heart is squeezed between them to move blood into the circulation
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How is the heart protected from damage as it expands and contracts?
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Pericardial sac
|
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What is the function of the pericardial sac?
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To minimize friction as the heart expands and contracts
|
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What are the layers of the pericardial sac? Which is inner/outer?
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- Visceral pericardium - inner layer fused to the surface of the heart
- Parietal pericardium - outer layer |
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What is found between the visceral and parietal pericardium?
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Pericardial Cavity - contains a thin film of fluid
|
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What is pericardiocentesis?
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A procedure in which a clinician sticks a needle between the sternum and ribcage into the pericardial cavity to remove build-up of fluid and blood
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Why would a clinician perform a pericardiocentesis?
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To help a Pericardial Effusion - a build-up of fluid/blood in the pericardial cavity
|
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What are the three layers of the heart wall?
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- Epicardium / Visceral Pericardium
- Myocardium - Endocardium |
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What is the endocardium?
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The inner lining of the heart wall, in direct contact with the heart
|
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What is the myocardium?
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Middle, muscular layer of the heart wall; made of involuntary, cardiac muscle
|
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What is the epicardium?
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Part of the pericardial sac that is fused to the surface of the heart (outer lining of the heart wall)
|
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What part of the heart wall is essentially the same thing as the visceral pericardium of the pericardial sac?
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Epicardium
|
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What are the two major circuits?
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- Pulmonary circulation - to and from the lungs
- Systemic circulation - to and from the rest of the body |
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Describe the four chambers of the heart.
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- Right Atrium - receives O2 poor blood from systemic circuit
- Right Ventricle - receives blood from right atrium and pumps it into the pulmonary circuit - Left Atrium - Receives O2 rich blood from pulmonary circuit - Left Ventricle - Receives blood from left atrium and pumps it to entire body |
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What is the order of blood circulation through the heart, starting as the blood returns from the body?
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- Right atrium
- Tricuspid valve - Right ventricle - Pulmonic valve - Pulmonary arteries - Lungs - Pulmonary veins - Left atrium - Mitral valve - Left ventricle - Aortic valve - Aorta |
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How does the blood flow pattern determine the anatomy (size, etc.) of the chambers that are responsible for each circuit?
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- Right atrium and ventricle send blood to pulmonary circuit; doesn't require as much muscle
- Left atrium and ventricle send blood to the systemic circuit; needs to be more muscular to pump |
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Where are the semilunar valves?
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Separate the ventricles from the pulmonary trunk (R semilunar) and the aorta (L semilunar)
|
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What is the structure of the semilunar valves?
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Each has three pocket like cusps shaped roughly like crescent moons (semilunar = half moons)
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How does back flow of blood close the semilunar valves?
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As ventricles contract and intraventricular pressure rises, blood is pushed up against semilunar valves, forcing them open
- As ventricles relax and intraventricular pressure falls, blood flows back from arteries, filing the cusps of semilunar valves and forcing them to close |
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Where are the atrioventricular valves located?
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- Between atria and ventricles
- Biscupid/mitral valve is on the L side - Triscuspid valve is on the R side |
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What other structures are involved with the atrioventricular valves?
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- Papillary muscles
- Chordae tendineae |
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What is the structure of the atrioventricular valve on the left side?
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Two cusps (bicuspid) - flaps of endocardium reinforced by cores of dense connective tissue
|
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What is the structure of the atrioventricular valve on the right side?
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Three cusps (tricuspid) - flaps of endocardium reinforced by cores of dense connective tissue
|
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How does back flow of blood close the atrioventricular valves? What is the role of the chordae tendineae and papillary muscles in preventing eversion of the AV valves?
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- Blood returning to the heart fills the atria, puts pressure against the AV valves and forces them open
- Atria contract, forcing additional blood into ventricles - Ventricles contract, force blood against and close the AV cusps - Papillary muscles contract and chordae tendineae tighten, preventing valve flaps from everting into atria |
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What does the "lub" sound represent?
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Lub - when the ventricles contract, the atrioventricular valves close
|
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What does the "dub" sound represent?
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Dub - when the ventricles relax, the semilunar valves close
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What is a heart murmur?
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When a heart valve is not working well it produces a murmur due to the leakage of blood
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What is an additional circulatory pattern besides systemic and pulmonary?
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Coronary circulation
|
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What are the major arteries of the coronary circulation?
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- Right coronary artery
- Marginal artery - Posterior interventricular artery - Left coronary artery - Anterior ventricular artery - Circumflex artery |
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What are the major veins of the coronary circulation?
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- Great cardiac vein
- Middle cardiac vein - Small cardiac vein - Coronary sinus |
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What are the branches of the right coronary artery?
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- Marginal artery
- Posterior interventricular artery |
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What are the branches of the left coronary artery?
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- Anterior interventricular artery
- Circumflex artery |
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What arteries travel alongside the great cardiac vein?
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- Anterior interventricular artery
- Circumflex artery |
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Which artery travels alongside the middle cardiac vein?
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Posterior interventricular artery
|
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Which artery travels alongside the small cardiac vein?
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Marginal artery
|
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What are the two surgical procedures that are commonly performed to treat obstructed coronary arteries?
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- Angioplasty
- Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting (CABG) |
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What is the procedure for an angioplasty?
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- Dye is injected into a coronary artery
- With an x-ray you can find where the blockage is - A narrow balloon is inserted via a catheter - The balloon is inflated to press the plaque against the arterial wall - This opens the lumen and allows better blood supply - A stent can be inserted to hold the vessel open |
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What do the small cardiac vein, middle cardiac vein, and great cardiac vein drain into?
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Coronary sinus which drains into the right atrium
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What is the procedure for a coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)?
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- Dye is injected into a coronary artery
- With an x-ray you can find where the blockage is - A vein is removed from the leg or arm to bypass the blockage - The new vein is grafted to the surface of the heart and sutured beyond the level of the obstruction |
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How is the heart able to maintain its constant level of activity?
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An intrinsic innervation called the conducting system, which conducts electrical impulses to the myocardium and causes it to contract on a regular basis
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What are the components of the conducting system of the heart?
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- SA (sinoatrial) node - pacemaker
- AV (atrioventricular) node - They form a network of specialized cardiac myocytes that stimulate contraction |
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What forms the pacemaker of the heart?
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Sinoatrial (SA) node
|
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How does the heart contract?
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- SA node stimulates the atria to contract
- There is a hesitation that allows for the atria to contract and fill the ventricles with blood before the ventricles contract - AV node stimulates the ventricles to contract |
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Where are the nodes of the conducting system located?
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- SA node at the top of the right atrium
- AV node at the bottom of the right atrium |
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How fast would the heart contract without the conduction system stimulating it?
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110 beats per minute
|
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How is the heart rate modified by the autonomic nervous system?
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- Sympathetic - increases heart rate
- Parasympathetic - vagus nerve decreases heart rate |
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What is an irregular heart beat called?
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Arrhythmia
|
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What are the three vessel types?
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1. Artery
2. Capillary 3. Vein |
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What do arteries do?
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Carry blood AWAY from the heart (usually carries oxygenated blood, except in pulmonary circuit the artery is deoxygenated)
|
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What do veins do?
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Carry blood TOWARDS the heart (usually carries deoxygenated blood, except in the pulmonary circuit the vein is oxygenated)
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What happens in capillaries?
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Site of exchange between blood and body tissues
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What are the layers of the typical blood vessel?
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- Tunica Intima
- Tunica Media - Tunica Externa |
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Describe the Tunica Intima of a blood vessel.
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- innermost layer that touches blood
- endothelium (simple squamous epithelium) - thin connective tissue |
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Describe the Tunica Media of a blood vessel.
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- thick middle layer of smooth muscle
- may contain elastic sheets |
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Describe the Tunica Externa of a blood vessel.
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- connective tissue
- contains sympathetic nerves - may contain vasa vasorum ("vessels of the vessels") |
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What are the special features of the three layers of the elastic arteries?
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- Tunica Intima - present
- Tunica Media - contains elastic sheets (thickest layer) - Tunica Externa - present |
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What are the special features of the three layers of the muscular arteries?
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- Tunica Intima - present
- Tunica Media - little or no elastin (thickest layer) - Tunica Externa - present |
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What are the special features of the three layers of the capillaries?
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- Tunica Intima - only layer
- NO tunica media or tunica externa |
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What are the special features of the three layers of the veins?
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- Tunica Intima - forms valves
- Tunica Media - thinner muscular layer - Tunica Externa - thickest layer |
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What are the two major classes of arteries? What distinguishes them?
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- Elastic Artery (aorta and the first few major branches) -many elastic sheets in the Tunica Media
- Muscular Arteries (all other arteries) - contains very little elastic tissue |
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Why is it important for the aorta and its branches to be elastic arteries?
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- This allows the vessel to expand as it receives blood from the ventricle
- When the ventricle relaxes the elastin recoils to force blood through the vessels |
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What is atherosclerosis?
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- Hardening of the arteries
- Begins after the endothelium is damaged - Plaque accumulates in the tunica intima - The lumen gets smaller and reduces blood flow to that part of the body |
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Which type of vessel is susceptible to atherosclerosis?
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Arteries
|
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Which of the three tunics is affected by atherosclerosis?
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Tunica Intima
|
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What are the risk factors for atherosclerosis?
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- Smoking
- Obesity - High cholesterol - High BP - Sedentary life - Diabetes - Gender - Age |
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Due to high pressure, arteries are subject to forming what?
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Aneurysms
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What is an aneurysm? Why is it dangerous?
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- Weakness in the wall of a vessel
- The high pressure of blood makes it balloon - If the vessel expands too much it can rupture |
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How is blood flow through veins regulated?
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- Valves keep blood flowing in one direction
- Muscle contraction helps push blood towards heart |
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What are varicose veins? Why do they form?
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- When valves in veins stop working
- Blood pools in veins making them enlarged |
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What are the three types of capillaries?
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- Continuous
- Fenestrated - Sinusoidal |
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Describe continuous capillaries and provide examples of where it is found.
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- Found where exchange must be controlled tightly
- Found in the CNS (to control what ions are around ions) and around muscles |
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Describe fenestrated capillaries and provide examples of where it is found.
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- Found where freer exchange is necessary
- Found in endocrine glands and at the kidney |
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Describe sinusoidal/discontinuous capillaries and provide examples of where it is found.
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- Found where very free exchange occurs
- Found in the spleen, liver, lymphatic vessels |
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How is circulation through a capillary bed regulated?
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- With pre capillary sphincters which relax to allow blood to enter the capillary bed and contract to divert blood past the capillary bed
- This is important so that blood goes to the parts of the body where it is needed most |
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What is a portal system?
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A system where blood flows through two separate capillary beds before returning to the heart
|
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What are the two capillary beds called in a portal system? What are they connected with?
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- Primary and secondary
- Vein |
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What happens at the primary and secondary capillary beds?
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- Substances enter the bloodstream at the primary capillary bed
- Substances exit the bloodstream at the secondary capillary bed |
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What are the two examples of portal systems?
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- Pituitary portal system
- Hepatic portal system |
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Describe the pituitary portal system.
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- Releasing and inhibiting hormones are released from the superior hypophyseal artery and enter blood at the primary capillary bed
- Blood flows through portal venules - Releasing and inhibiting hormones exit the blood at the secondary capillary bed - Hormones of the pituitary gland enter the blood and are carried away by the vein at the secondary capillary bed |
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Describe the hepatic portal system.
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- Nutrients and toxins enter the blood at the primary capillary bed (stomach and intestine)
- Nutrients and toxins exit the blood at the secondary capillary bed (liver) |
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What is collateral circulation?
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Alternative pathways for delivering blood to a region of the body
|
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Why is collateral circulation important?
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If one vessel is blocked, blood can still get to the region by an alternative route
|
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Do all ares of the body have collateral circulation?
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No
|
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What is blood pressure?
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A measurement of the force applied by blood to the arterial wall
|
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Which vessel is commonly used to measure blood pressure?
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Brachial artery
|
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What is the difference between systolic and diastolic pressure?
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- Systolic is the first number - as the cuff is deflated, blood starts to flow through due to contraction of the ventricle (blood flow sounds irregular)
- Diastolic is the second number - as the cuff is deflated further, eventually blood flows smoothly with no irregular sounds |
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What is hypertension?
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- High blood pressure
- A measurement that is consistently over 140/85 - AKA silent killer - Treated with a variety of medications |
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What are the branches of the aortic arch?
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- Common Carotid
- Subclavian |
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What does the common carotid branch into? What do these arteries supply blood to?
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- Internal carotid (to the brain) - part of the circle of Willis
- External carotid (to the neck and superficial head) |
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What does the subclavian branch into? What do these arteries supply blood to?
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- Vertebral (to the brain) - part of the circle of Willis
- Axillary (to the upper limb) |
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What arteries form the circle of Willis?
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- Internal carotid artery
- Vertebral artery |
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What arteries leave the aortic arch to supply blood to the upper limb?
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Subclavian (under clavicle)
--> Axillary (armpit) --> Brachial (upper arm) --> Radial and Ulnar (lower arm) |
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What are the branches of the descending aorta?
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- Intercostal
- Lumbar - Renal - Celiac - Superior Mesenteric - Inferior Mesenteric |
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What does the intercostal artery branch off of? What does it supply blood to?
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- From descending aorta
- To the thoracic wall |
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What does the lumbar artery branch off of? What does it supply blood to?
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- From descending aorta
- To the abdominal wall |
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What does the renal artery branch off of? What does it supply blood to?
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- Branches off of descending aorta
- To the kidneys |
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What does the celiac artery branch off of? What does it supply blood to?
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- Branches off of descending aorta
- Goes to abdominal organs through half of the duodenum |
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What does the superior mesenteric artery branch off of? What does it supply blood to?
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- Branches off of descending aorta
- Goes to second half of the duodenum through the transverse colon |
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What does the inferior mesenteric artery branch off of? What does it supply blood to?
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- Branches off of the descending aorta
- Goes to descending colon through sigmoid colon |
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What are the terminal branches of the aorta?
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- Internal iliac artery
- External iliac artery |
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What does the internal iliac artery branch off of? What does it supply blood to?
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- From the terminal branch of the aorta
- Goes to the pelvic organs and the gluteal region |
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What does the external iliac artery branch off of? What does it supply blood to?
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- From the terminal branch of the aorta
- Goes tot he lower limbs |
|
What is the pathway of arteries through the leg?
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External iliac (pelvic region
--> Femoral (thigh) --> Popliteal (posterior knee) --> Anterior tibial and posterior tibial (lower leg) |
|
What is the function of the immune system?
|
- Protection - usually stimulated by foreign organisms
- Must be able to distinguish between "self" and "non-self" |
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What is an antigen?
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A protein on the surface of bacteria/viruses/etc. that are recognized as foreign
|
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Which cell types attack antigens nonspecifically? How do they attack them?
|
- Macrophages
- Neutrophils - Use phagocytosis to destroy ANY foreign antigen |
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Which cell types attack antigens specifically?
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Lymphocytes (B & T)
|
|
Where do lymphocytes get educated to recognize self vs. non-self?
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- B cells are educated in the bone marrow
- T cells are educated in the thymus |
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Where are lymphocytes created? Where do they travel to for education?
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- All are generated in the bone marrow
- B cells stay in the bone marrow - T cells travel to the thymus |
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After B and T lymphocytes have learned which antigens they each respond to they are are called what?
|
Immunocompetent
|
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What kind of antigens stimulate T cells?
|
Intracellular antigens (viruses)
|
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What kind of immunity do B cells give?
|
Antibody Mediated Immunity
|
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What kind of immunity do T cells give?
|
Cell Mediated Immunity
|
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What other kinds of cells are necessary for activation of T cells (CD8)?
|
- Activated helper T cells help activate CD8 T cells
- Helper T cells are activated by Macrophages which present the antigen |
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What is an antigen-presenting cell?
|
Macrophages
|
|
How do the CD8 T cells respond when activated?
|
When activated, CD8 T cell divides and form:
- Memory cells - Active CD8 cells (effector cells) that kill other infected cells by secreting chemicals |
|
What is the function of effector cells?
|
Immediate response to kill current infection
|
|
What is the function of memory cells?
|
They do not respond during the current infection, but can respond quickly if the same antigen ever enters the body
|
|
How are Helper T cells (CD4) activated?
|
1. A macrophage ingests the antigen, degrades it and presents a small portion on the surface
2. The inactive helper T cell binds to the presented antigen via the helper T cell receptor 3. The macrophage secretes chemicals that help activate the helper T cell |
|
How are T cells (CD8) activated?
|
1. A macrophage presents the antigen
2. CD8 T cell binds to it 3. An activated helper T (CD4) cell specific for the same antigen recognizes the macrophage/CD8 cell complex 4. The helper T cell secretes chemicals to activate the CD8 cell 5. The CD8 cell divides to form memory cells and effector cells (active CD8 cells) |
|
What kind of antigens stimulate B cells?
|
Extracellular antigens (bacteria)
|
|
What other kind of cells are necessary for B cell activation?
|
- Helper T cells help activate B cells
- Helper T cells are activated by macrophages |
|
How do the B cells respond when activated?
|
When activated, B cells divide and form:
- Memory cells for the next exposure - Plasma cells to secrete antibodies |
|
What is the function of B effector/plasma cells?
|
Secrete antibodies (antibody-mediated immunity)
|
|
What is the function of memory B cells?
|
To be prepared for the next exposure to release antibodies
|
|
How will the B cell response differ on subsequent exposure to the same antigen?
|
You will have increased release of immunoglobulins (antibodies) much more quickly than the first exposure
|
|
How are B cells activated?
|
1. B cell binds, ingests, degrades and presents another copy of the antigen
2. Activated Helper T cells specific for the same antigen recognize the presented antigen 3. Helper cell secretes chemicals to activate the B cell 4. The B cell divides to form plasma cells and memory cells |
|
How does HIV affect the immune system?
|
It infects and destroys the Helper T cells (CD4)
|
|
How does a vaccination work?
|
- An intentional exposure to a common disease causing organism (weakened or inactive)
- This stimulates the immune system to respond and to form memory cells - You usually receive multiple vaccinations so that many memory cells are produced - If you are ever exposed to the bacterium or virus your body is prepared to destroy it |
|
What is an autoimmune disease?
|
- When the immune system recognizes its own tissues as foreign
- The immune system starts to destroy its own cells |
|
Why is the lymphatic system necessary?
|
- The exchange that occurs in the capillary beds is very inefficient
- Far more substances exit the blood than are regained - The lymphatic system is necessary to obtain the important fluids and dissolved substances from the interstitial fluid |
|
What are the functions of the lymphatic system?
|
- Returns proteins to the blood
- Filters antigens (foreign substances) from the lymph - Delivers fats absorbed in the gut to the blood |
|
How do lymphatic vessels differ from blood vessels so they can serve these functions?
|
They are discontinuous capillaries that take in substances too large to reenter the blood capillaries
|
|
What may happen if the lymphatic system does not work properly?
|
Edema
|
|
What is edema caused by?
|
When lymphatic vessels do not remove extracellular protein from the extracellular space and return it to the bloodstream, water accumulates in the extracellular compartment (where the protein concentration is higher)
|
|
Through what lymphatic vessels is the lymph returned to the bloodstream?
|
- Thoracic Duct
- Right Lymphatic Duct |
|
From what part of the body does the thoracic duct drain lymph?
|
3/4 of the body (L arm, L upper body, and lower body/legs)
|
|
From what part of the body does the right lymphatic duct drain lymph?
|
1/4 of the body (R arm and R upper body)
|
|
Where do the thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct drain the lymph into?
|
The subclavian vein and internal jugular vein
|
|
What are the major mechanisms that cause lymph to flow in the proper direction?
|
- Valves
- Compression as neighboring muscles contract - "Negative pressure" in the thorax |
|
Because lymphatic vessels recover and transport not only desirable substances but foreign substances (antigens) too, what must the lymph pass through before it delivers the blood to the veins?
|
Lymph node
|
|
What is the function of a lymph node?
|
Destroys antigens in the lymph before returning it to the blood
|
|
What is the structure of a lymph node?
|
- Outer layer: cortex
- Inner layer: medulla |
|
What is the function of the cortex of the lymph node?
|
- Contains masses of lymphocytes
- It is the site of the specific immune response |
|
What is the function of the medulla of the lymph node?
|
- Contains macrophages
- It is the site of the nonspecific destruction of antigens by phagocytosis |
|
What is the function of the spleen?
|
- To destroy any antigens that do manage to get past the lymph nodes and enter the blood
- Destroys damaged red blood cells |
|
What is the location of the spleen?
|
Curves around the left side of the stomach
|
|
What are the two significant structures in the spleen?
|
- White pulp
- Red pulp |
|
What is found in the white pulp? What is the function?
|
- Masses of lymphocytes (WBCs)
- Specific recognition by B and T lymphocytes |
|
What is the red pulp? What is the function?
|
- Elaborate networks of discontinuous blood capillaries
- Nonspecific destruction by macrophages |
|
Where is the nonspecific (phagocytosis) immune response in the lymph node?
|
Medulla (and cortex)
|
|
Where is the specific immune response in the lymph node?
|
Cortex
|
|
Where is the nonspecific (phagocytosis) immune response in the spleen?
|
Red pulp
|
|
Where is the specific immune response in the spleen?
|
White pulp
|
|
What is the primary function of the respiratory system?
|
Exchange of gases to supply the body with oxygen and to eliminate carbon dioxide
|
|
What are secondary functions of the respiratory system?
|
- Generates sound
- Houses the sensory receptors for olfaction |
|
What are the organs involved in respiration?
|
- Nasal cavity
- Pharynx - Larynx - Trachea - Bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli - Lungs |
|
What are the two distinct portions of the respiratory tract?
|
- Conducting portion
- Respiratory portion |
|
What are the functions of the conducting portion of the respiratory tract?
|
- Maintains an open airway so air can be exchanged constantly
- "Conditions" the air |
|
Which organs are involved in the conducting portion of the respiratory tract?
|
- Nasal cavity
- Pharynx - Larynx - Trachea - Bronchi |
|
What is the function of the respiratory portion of the respiratory tract?
|
Site of gas exchange
|
|
What organs are involved in the respiratory portion of the respiratory tract?
|
- Lungs
- Alveoli |
|
What are the functions of the nasal cavity?
|
- Conditions the air
- Filters out particulates - Warms and humidifies the air |
|
What kinds of epithelium line the nasal cavity to accomplish its functions? What are these functions?
|
- Respiratory epithelium - traps and eliminates inhaled debris
- Olfactory epithelium - chemicals stimulate the neurons of cranial nerve I |
|
Which cell types are found in the respiratory epithelium? What are their functions?
|
- Pseudostratified columnar with cilia - beats the mucus out of the tract
- Goblet cells - secrete mucus to trap particles that you inhale |
|
What is the location of the olfactory epithelium?
|
In the roof of the nasal cavity
|
|
Where are the nasal conchae?
|
In the nasal cavity
|
|
What is the function of the nasal conchae?
|
- Increases surface area
- Makes the air swirl as it passes through the nasal cavity |
|
As you inhale, air passes from the nasal cavity into what structure?
|
The pharynx
|
|
The pharynx is an organ shared by what systems?
|
Respiratory tract
Digestive tract |
|
What are the three segments of the pharynx?
|
- Nasopharynx
- Oropharynx - Laryngopharynx |
|
What is the location of the nasopharynx?
|
- Behind the nasal cavity
- Above the soft palate |
|
What is the location of the oropharynx?
|
- Behind the oral cavity
- Between the palate and epiglottis |
|
What is the location of the laryngopharynx?
|
- Behind the larynx
|
|
In which segment of the pharynx does the auditory tube open?
|
Nasopharynx
|
|
Which regions of the pharynx are used by both the respiratory and digestive systems?
|
- Oropharynx
- Laryngopharynx |
|
Which region of the pharynx is used only by the respiratory system?
|
Nasopharynx
|
|
What prevents food and liquids from entering the larynx?
|
Epiglottis
|
|
When the respiratory and digestive systems diverge, the air continues through what structure?
|
Larynx
|
|
When the respiratory and digestive systems diverge, the food and drink continue through what structure?
|
Laryngopharynx and into the esophagus
|
|
What are the functions of the larynx?
|
- Conducts air
- Produces sound - "voice box" |
|
How is the larynx held open?
|
Cartilage
|
|
What are the cartilages of the larynx?
|
- Thyroid (adam's apple)
- Cricoid - Arytenoid |
|
What is the large C-shaped cartilage of the larynx that forms the Adam's apple?
|
Thyroid
|
|
What is the smaller C-shaped cartilage of the larynx, that is lower down, just above the trachea?
|
Cricoid
|
|
What is the cartilage of the larynx that is important for moving the vocal cords?
|
Arytenoid
|
|
How do we produce sounds of different pitches?
|
- By moving at the joints between the cartilages, the length and tension on the vocal cords change
- This changes the pitch of the sound |
|
What is the range of a person's voice determined by?
|
- Size of their larynx
- This is determined by the size of the thyroid cartilage - Males have larger thyroid cartilages due to higher levels of testosterone |
|
What is the next organ beyond the larynx?
|
Trachea
|
|
Can the trachea be open and closed?
|
No, it must always be open because it is part of the conducting portion of the respiratory system
|
|
What is the structure of the trachea?
|
- Tube that is held open by C-shaped rings of cartilage
- Lined by respiratory epithelium - On side of trachea not containing cartilage there is smooth muscle |
|
Where is the trachea relative to the esophagus?
|
Anterior
|
|
The trachea descend through the neck and upper chest before branching into what?
|
Bronchi
|
|
Where do bronchi enter the lungs?
|
At the medial side of each lung at the lung's hilus
|
|
How can you distinguish between the right and left lungs?
|
- The right lung has 3 lobes
- The left lung has 2 lobes |
|
What does the term hilus mean?
|
The area where the bronchi, vessels, nerves, etc. enter the lungs
|
|
Describe the branching pattern of the bronchi?
|
- Two primary bronchii, one for each lung (2)
- This branches into the secondary bronchii, one for each lobe (5) - These branch into tertiary brachii which turn into bronchioles and finally end with alveoli |
|
How are bronchioles different than bronchi?
|
Bronchioles have thinner walls without cartilage
|
|
What kind of epithelium lines the alveoli?
|
- Simple squamous epithelium (thinnest)
- Reduces barrier between the blood and air |
|
What is the function of Type I cells of the alveoli?
|
Gas exchange
|
|
What is the function of Type II cells of the alveoli?
|
Secretes surfactant which prevents alvoli from totally collapsing
|
|
What prevents alveoli from collapsing?
|
The surfactant released from Type II cells
|
|
What is the function of alveolar macrophages?
|
Phagocytose debris the alveolus
|
|
How does the diaphragm control breathing?
|
- When diaphragm contracts it descends, this increases the thoracic cavity size which decreases the pressure, thus air rushes in (INHALATION)
- When diaphragm relaxes it pushes up, this decreases the volume of thoracic cavity, increasing pressure, air rushes out (EXHALATION) |
|
What happens when the diaphragm contracts?
|
Inhalation
|
|
What happens when the diaphragm relaxes?
|
Exhalation
|
|
How do the elastic fibers in the alveolar walls assist inhalation/exhalation?
|
- Elastic fibers are stretched during inhalation
- Elastic fibers relax during inhalation |
|
What disease destroys the elastic fibers?
|
Emphysema (smoking damages elastic fibers)
|
|
What is the purpose of the pleural sac?
|
To prevent damage to the surface of the lung as it expands and recoils
|
|
What are the two layers of the pleural sac (found on the lung)?
|
- Visceral pleura (on lung)
- Parietal pleura (lining thoracic wall) |
|
What lining is found on the surface of the lung?
|
Visceral pleura
|
|
What lining is found on surface of the thoracic wall?
|
Parietal pleura
|
|
What separates the visceral pleura and the parietal pleura?
|
Thin fluid-filled cavity
|
|
What 5 processes are performed by the digestive system?
|
- Ingestion
- Propulsion - Digestion - Absorption - Defecation |
|
What does the propulsion function of the digestive system include?
|
- Swallowing
- Peristalsis |
|
What are the two components of digestion by the digestive system?
|
- Mechanical Digestion (chewing)
- Chemical Digestion (enzymes) |
|
What are the organs of the digestive system, and in what order does food/fluid pass through them?
|
- Mouth
- Pharynx - Esophagus - Stomach - Small Intestine (duodenum, jéjunum, ileum) - Large Intestine / Colon (ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid, rectum, anal canal, anus) |
|
What glands are associated with the digestive tract and where are they located?
|
- Salivary glands - mouth
- Liver - above stomach - Gall Bladder - under liver - Pancreas - under stomach |
|
What glands secrete into the small intestine?
|
- Liver
- Gall Bladder - Pancreas |
|
What roles does the mouth play in digestion?
|
- Site of ingestion
- Begins digestion via mechanical methods (chewing) and chemical methods (enzymes in saliva) |
|
What are the functions of the salivary glands in the mouth?
|
Secrete saliva
- Chemically digests carbohydrates - Dissolves food for tasting - Dissolves food for swallowing |
|
What is the significance of the pharynx in digestion?
|
Food passes through the oropharynx and laryngopharynx
|
|
What is the the role of the esophagus in digestion?
|
Contracts to move food to the stomach
|
|
What structure prevents food from entering the trachea?
|
Epiglottis
|
|
What structure prevents food from entering the nasal cavity?
|
Soft Palate
|
|
What are the four layers in the wall of the digestive tract?
|
- Mucosa
- Submucosa - Muscularis - Serosa |
|
What are the components of the inner layer of the wall of the digestive tract?
|
Mucosa
- Epithelium - Lamina Propria - Muscularis Mucosa |
|
What are the components of the muscular layer of the wall of the digestive tract?
|
Muscularis
- Inner circular muscle - Outer longitudental muscle |
|
What are the components of the outer layer of the wall of the digestive tract?
|
Serosa
- Epithelium - Connective Tissue |
|
What are the three functions of the stomach?
|
1. Storage
2. Mechanical Digestion 3. Chemical Digestion |
|
What prevents damage to the stomach lining?
|
Mucus
|
|
What is an ulcer?
|
- When lining of stomach (or small intestine erodes)
- Can penetrate entire thickness of wall - Due to bacterial infection (Heliobacter pylori) - Treats with antibiotics |
|
What causes heartburn?
|
- If cardiac sphincter relaxes, stomach contents can move up in esophagus
- This irritates lining and hurts |
|
What are the three segments of the small intestine?
|
1. Duodenum
2. Jejunum 3. Ileum |
|
What are the general functions of the small intestine?
|
- Finishing digestion
- Absorption continues (vast majority occurs here) |
|
How is the small intestine's structure specialized to maximize absorption?
|
- Folds in the wall to increase surface area
- Additional projections (villi) and indentations (glands) - At tip of villi there are microvilli projecting off of individual cells - These folds increase SA about 600x |
|
Where do the various nutrients go after they are absorbed in the small intestine?
|
- Amino Acids and Sugars are absorbed into blood capillaries and are sent to the hepatic portal system
- Fats are received by lymphatic capillaries and are sent directly to general circulation |
|
Where do toxins go that are absorbed in the small intestine?
|
Toxins are received by blood capillaries and are sent to the hepatic portal system
|
|
If too many toxins are absorbed it can lead to organ damage. Which organ is most likely to be affected?
|
Liver
|
|
What is the route of toxins, amino acids, and sugars in the hepatic portal system?
|
- Enter in primary capillary bed at stomach and intestine
- Exit in secondary capillary bed at liver |
|
Which glands deliver their secretory products to the duodenum?
|
- Liver
- Gall Bladder - Pancreas |
|
What are the functions of the secretory products of the liver? Where are they delivered?
|
- Synthesizes bile for digestion of fats
- Secreted into duodenum |
|
What are the functions of the secretory products of the gall bladder? Where are they delivered?
|
- Stores and concentrates the bile until food enters the duodenum
- Secreted into duodenum |
|
What are the functions of the secretory products of the pancreas? Where are they delivered?
|
Digests all types of food
- Lipase - fats - Amylase - carbs - Peptidase - proteins (Exocrine function) - Secreted into duodenum |
|
What are the two functions of the colon / large intestine?
|
- Absorption of water and electrolytes
- Production of feces |
|
What are the two major cell types in the epithelium lining the large intestine?
|
- Goblet cells
- Absorptive cells |
|
What is the function of the goblet cells of the large intestine?
|
Secretes mucus to lubricate and protect surfaces
|
|
What is the function of the absorptive cells of the large intestine?
|
Absorbs water and electrolytes
|
|
What controls defecation?
|
Anal sphincter:
- Muscularis externa thickens to form smooth muscle sphincter (stronger) - External anal sphincter from skeletal muscle (controllable) |
|
What causes diarrhea?
|
If feces move too quickly through the large intestine there is not enough water resorbed and the feces is watery
|
|
What are the four systems for removing wastes from the body?
|
- Urinary system
- Digestive system - Reproductive system - Skin |
|
What are the four organs of the urinary system?
|
- Kidney
- Ureter - Bladder - Urethra |
|
What are the four major functions of the kidney?
|
- Filtration of blood
- Regulation of blood volume/pressure - Secretion of hormones - Regulation of CO2 and acid-base balance of body fluids |
|
What are the three major regions within the kidney?
|
- Cortex
- Medulla - Sinus or Pelvis |
|
What structures are contained in the cortex of the kidney?
|
- Superficial tissue
- Renal columns - Kidney tubules |
|
What structures are contained in the medulla of the kidney?
|
- Renal pyramids
- Kidney tubules |
|
What structures are contained in the sinus/pelvis of the kidney?
|
- Minor calyx
- Major calyx |
|
Each kidney contains approximately 1,000,000 functional units called what?
|
Nephrons
|
|
What are the components of the nephron?
|
- Vascular components
- Tubular components |
|
What are the vascular components of the nephron?
|
- Glomerulus
- Peritubular capillaries |
|
What are the tubular components of the nephron?
|
- Glomerular capsule
- Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) - Loop of Henle - Distal convoluted tubule (DCT) - Collecting duct |
|
Why do the kidneys require a disproportionately high volume of blood for their size? How much do they receive?
|
- Because they are specialized to "clean" the blood
- They receive 20-25% of cardiac output |
|
Describe blood flow throughout the kidneys (vessels that lead into and away from the renal corpuscle)
|
1. Afferent arteriole
2. Glomerulus 3. Efferent arteriole 4. Capillary beds (Peritubular capillaries and Vasa Recta) |
|
What is the major artery that enters the kidney?
|
Renal artery
|
|
Where does filtration of the blood occur?
|
Urinary filter in the cortex
|
|
What are the three layers of the urinary filter?
|
1. Fenestrated endothelium of the glomerulus
2. Basement membrane 3. Podocyte filtration slits |
|
How do the fenestrated endothelium of the glomerulus (part of the urinary filter) filter the blood?
|
Based on size; formed elements can't pass (RBCs, WBCs, platelets)
|
|
How does the basement membrane (part of the urinary filter) filter the blood?
|
Filteras based on size and charge; substances over 70,000 daltons or too negatively charged can't pass
|
|
How do the podocyte filtration slits (part of the urinary filter) filter the blood?
|
Filter based on size
|
|
Where are substances recovered from the urine?
|
- H2O
- Salts (Na+, Cl-, - Glucose - Amino acids - Small proteins |
|
What is the role of the peritubular capillaries and vasa recta?
|
Permits extensive exchange between blood and filtrate in the tubules
|
|
What are the peritubular capillaries interacting with?
|
Convoluted tubules in cortex
|
|
What is the vasa recta interacting with?
|
Loops of Henle and collecting ducts in renal pyramids of medulla
|
|
How are the capillary beds (peritubular capillaries and vasa recta) connected in the kidney? What is the significance of this?
|
- By an arteriole
- Not a portal system (connected by a vein) - Small veins look like capillaries (only tunica intima) - Arterioles have at least one layer of smooth muscle for regulation of blood flow |
|
What hormones affect function of the kidney tubules?
|
- Aldosterone
- ADH (antidiuretic hormone) - ANF (atrial natriuretic factor) |
|
What hormone(s) are released if blood pressure is too low?
|
- Aldosterone
- ADH (antidiuretic hormone) |
|
What hormone(s) is released if blood pressure is too high?
|
ANF (atrial natriuretic factor)
|
|
What is the function of aldosterone? Where does it have its affect?
|
- Increase resorption of Na+ and H2O
- Increases blood pressure - Affects Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) |
|
What is the function of ADH (antidiuretic hormone)? Where does it have its affect?
|
- Increase resorption of Na+ and H2O
- Increases blood pressure - Affects collecting ducts |
|
What is the function of ANF (atrial natriuretic factor)? Where does it have its affect?
|
- Inhibits aldosterone secretion
- Lowers blood pressure - Affects adrenal cortex |
|
After urine is made in the kidneys, it is transported to what?
|
By the ureters to the urinary bladder
|
|
What is the function of the ureters?
|
Muscular tube that contracts to force urine from the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder for storage
|
|
What is the function of the urinary bladder?
|
Storage of urine
|
|
What prevents reflux of urine from the urinary bladder into the ureter?
|
- Ureter penetrates the bladder at an angle
- As bladder fills it pushes the wall of bladder against the ureter to seal the opening |
|
How is the epithelium of the ureters and urinary bladder specialized to accommodate the changes in volume that they hold?
|
- Transitional Epithelium / Urothelium
- Cells can break and reform junctions as necessary - Must be able to adapt quickly |
|
What is the function of the urethra?
|
Removes urine from the bladder
|
|
What are the three parts of the male urethra?
|
1. Prostatic Urethra - surrounded by prostate gland
2. Membranous Urethra - surrounded by skeletal muscle (voluntary control) 3. Penile / Spongy Urethra - surrounded by spongy erectile tissue |
|
How does the difference between male and female urethras make females more susceptible to UTIs?
|
Females have much shorter urethras
|
|
How is urination controlled?
|
Urethral sphincters
- Muscularis externa (smooth) - internal urethral sphincter - External urethral sphincter (skeletal) - controllable |
|
What are the functions of the male reproductive system?
|
- Synthesis of sperm
- Storage of sperm - Delivery of sperm tot he female reproductive tract |
|
What are the organs and glands of the male reproductive tract?
|
- Testis
- Scrotum - Epididymis - Vas deferens - Ejaculatory duct - Urethra - Seminal vesicle - Prostate gland - Bulbourethral gland - Penis |
|
Where do the testes develop?
|
In the abdominal cavity
|
|
Where do the testes move during development?
|
They descend through the inguinal canal and into the scrotum
|
|
What is the inguinal canal?
|
Pathway through the body wall that testes descend through
|
|
What is the spermatic cord?
|
The combination of the vas deferens, vessels and nerves that connect to the testes
|
|
What can happen if the inguinal canal does not seal off after descent of the testis?
|
Inguinal hernias - a loop of the small intestine can descend through the inguinal canal (a weak area)
|
|
Why is it necessary for the testes to lie outside of the abdominal cavity?
|
Cooler temperature outside of the body for sperm production
|
|
What is the name of the connective tissue that surrounds the testes like a capsule?
|
Tunica Albuginea
|
|
What are the extensions of capsule that divide and support the testes?
|
Septa
|
|
What structures are coiled between the septa in the testes?
|
Seminiferous tubules
|
|
Where are the sperm produced?
|
Seminiferous tubules
|
|
Why are so many sperm made?
|
So that you increase the likelihood of fertilization
|
|
What happens to sperm that are not ejaculated?
|
They are broken down and resorbed
|
|
After meiosis, sperm are at what level of DNA?
|
Haploid
|
|
What process converts a round spermatogenic cell to a lean, mean mature sperm?
|
Spermiogenesis
|
|
What are the three parts of a sperm?
|
- Head
- Midpiece - Tail |
|
What is contained in the head of the sperm?
|
DNA and acrosome (contains enzymes for fertilization)
|
|
What is contained in the mid piece of the sperm?
|
Many mitochondria for energy production
|
|
What is in the tail of the sperm?
|
The flagellum which allows the sperm to swim
|
|
In addition to the spermatogenic cells there are other important cells in the testes called what?
|
- Sertoli (or sustentocytes)
- Leydic (or interstitial) |
|
Where are the Sertoli cells found?
|
Within the seminiferous tubules
|
|
What are some major functions of the Sertoli cells?
|
- Deliver nutrients to spermatogenic cells
- Respond to FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) and secrete ABP (androgen binding protein) - Form the blood-testis barrier - protect developing sperm from cells of the immune system that are in the connective tissue between tubules |
|
Where are the interstitial / Leydig cells located?
|
Between the seminiferous tubules
|
|
What are the functions of the Leydic / interstitial cells?
|
Secrete testosterone
|
|
What are the functions of the epididymis?
|
- Resorbs shed cytoplasm and damaged sperm
- Stores sperm - Site of sperm maturation - Site of swimming lessons |
|
What are the functions of the ductus (vas) deferens?
|
- Stores sperm
- Contracts during sexual response to push sperm out |
|
What are the three accessory glands of the male reproductive system?
|
- Seminal vesicles
- Prostate gland - Bulbourethral gland |
|
What is the function of the seminal vesicles?
|
- Adds secretions to sperm
- Fructose is an energy source for the sperm - Substances that neutralize the acidity of the vagina |
|
What is the function of the prostate gland?
|
- Adds secretions to sperm
- Includes enzymes that liquefy the sperm so sperm have less viscous fluid to swim through |
|
What is the function of the bulbourethral gland?
|
- Secretes during sexual response to flush any residual urine from urethra
- This increases survivability of sperm |
|
What is semen?
|
The fluid that includes the secretions of the there accessory glands and the sperm
|
|
What two structures join to form the ejaculatory duct?
|
- Vas deferens
- Seminal vesicles duct |
|
What is the function of the ejaculatory duct?
|
To combine the sperm from the vas deferens with the secretions from the seminal vesicles; leads into the urethra where the two ejaculatory ducts combine
|
|
Why is the prostate gland important clinically?
|
It is very susceptible to cancer
|
|
Where is the prostate gland?
|
Surrounds the proximal part of the urethra
|
|
If the prostate gland were enlarged, what symptoms would the patient have?
|
It may compress the urethra and lead to urinary difficulties
|
|
What are the structures that make up the penis?
|
- Tunica albuginea
- Corpus cavernosum (x2) - Corpus spongiosum - Glans penis - Prepuce |
|
What is the dense connective tissue that surrounds the networks of blood vessels in the penis?
|
Tunica albuginea
|
|
What is the tunica albuginea?
|
The dense connective tissue that surrounds the networks of blood vessels in the penis (corpus cavernous and corpus spongiosum)
|
|
What are the three cylinders of erectile tissue?
|
- 2x corpus cavernosum
- 2x corpus spongiosum |
|
Which cylinder of erectile tissue surrounds the urethra and forms the glans?
|
Corpus spongiosum
|
|
What tissue of the penis forms the head?
|
Glans
|
|
Which tissue is removed during circumcision?
|
Prepuce (foreskin)
|
|
What is erectile tissue?
|
- Three cylinders (2x corpus cavernosum, 1x corpus spongiosum)
- Fills with blood during the sexual response to become erect |
|
What are the functions of the female reproductive system?
|
- Synthesize oocytes (ova, eggs)
- Store and nourish oocytes until fertilization - Potentially house and nourish the embryo until the time of birth |
|
What are the four main organs of the female reproductive system?
|
- Ovaries
- Uterine tubes / oviducts / fallopian tubes - Uterus (body and cervix) - Vagina |
|
Where are oocytes made?
|
In the ovaries
|
|
What are the layers of the ovary? What do they contain?
|
- Tunica Albuginea (capsule)
- Cortex (outer) - contains follicles - Medulla (inner) - contains large branches of vessels) |
|
Where are oocytes found?
|
Inside follicles in the cortex of the ovary
|
|
When are the oocytes made?
|
Prenatally (females are born with all the oocytes they will ever have)
|
|
When do oocytes start to mature?
|
During puberty, each month
|
|
What do all oocytes have in common regardless of the stage of maturation?
|
They are all separated from the surrounding connective tissue by a layer of epithelial cells called follicular cells
|
|
What does a follicle consist of?
|
- Oocyte
- Follicular cells |
|
How does a follicle develop from the primordial to mature stage?
|
- FSH stimulates the follicle
- Follicular cells divide and secrete estrogen and fluid that accumulates in the follicle - Estrogen secretion causes a surge of LH secretion from pituitary - LH stimulates ovulation - Oocyte and follicular cells are released from ovary - Corpus luteum forms from remainder of follicle - LH causes corpus lutem to secrete progesterone to stimulate growth of uterus |
|
What is the role of the follicular cells?
|
- Separates the oocyte from the surrounding connective tissues
- Shuttles nutrients to oocytes - Secretes estrogen - Secretes fluid that accumulates in follicle |
|
Over the course of a woman's reproductive years, approximately how many oocytes of how many total are released from the overt during ovulation?
|
500 of 5 million oocytes
|
|
Most cells of the mature follicle remain in the ovary after ovulation. What structure do these cells form?
|
Corpus Luteum
|
|
Which hormone does the corpus luteum produce?
|
Progesterone (stimulates growth of uterus)
|
|
Which hormone stimulates the formation of the corpus luteum?
|
Estrogen leads to LH surge which causes the corpus luteum
|
|
After ovulation, what enters the uterine tube?
|
The oocyte and a layer of follicular cells
|
|
How is the uterine tube specialized to move the oocyte/zygote towards to the uterus?
|
- Ciliated cells
- Chemoattractants |
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Where does the oocyte get fertilized?
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In the uterine tube
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Describe the structure of the uterine tube.
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- Opening is wide; gets narrower as it approaches the uterus (like a funnel)
- 3 histological layers: mucosa, muscularis, serosa |
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Describe the three histological layers of the uterine tube?
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- Mucosa - epithelium (ciliated cells, peg cells), lamina propria
- Muscularis - contracts to move the egg towards the uterus - Serosa |
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Most cells of the mature follicle remain in the ovary after ovulation. What structure do these cells form?
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Corpus Luteum
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What happens to the oocyte if it is not fertilized within 72 hrs after ovulation?
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Egg willl degenerate
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Which hormone does the corpus luteum produce?
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Progesterone (stimulates growth of uterus)
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How is the uterine tube specialized to provide nutrition for the oocyte/zygote?
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Peg cells - secrete nutrients into the uterine tube for nourishment of oocyte/zygote until it implants
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Which hormone stimulates the formation of the corpus luteum?
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Estrogen leads to LH surge which causes the corpus luteum
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After ovulation, what enters the uterine tube?
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The oocyte and a layer of follicular cells
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How is the uterine tube specialized to move the oocyte/zygote towards to the uterus?
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- Ciliated cells
- Chemoattractants |
|
Where does the oocyte get fertilized?
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In the uterine tube
|
|
Describe the structure of the uterine tube.
|
- Opening is wide; gets narrower as it approaches the uterus (like a funnel)
- 3 histological layers: mucosa, muscularis, serosa |
|
Describe the three histological layers of the uterine tube?
|
- Mucosa - epithelium (ciliated cells, peg cells), lamina propria
- Muscularis - contracts to move the egg towards the uterus - Serosa |
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What happens to the oocyte if it is not fertilized within 72 hrs after ovulation?
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Egg willl degenerate
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How is the uterine tube specialized to provide nutrition for the oocyte/zygote?
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Peg cells - secrete nutrients into the uterine tube for nourishment of oocyte/zygote until it implants
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What could happen if the zygote did not reach the uterus before implantation?
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Ectopic pregnancy - mostly leads to death of embryo
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What is the surgical procedure for female sterilization?
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Tubal Ligation
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What are the layers of the uterus?
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- Perimetrium / Serosa (outer)
- Myometrium (middle) - Endometrium (inner) |
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Describe the outer layer of the uterus.
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- Perimetrium / Serosa (outer)
- Connective tissue |
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Describe the middle layer of the uterus.
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- Myometrium (middle)
- Very thick with 3 layers - Contracts during childbirth and menstrual cramps |
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Describe the inner layer of the uterus.
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- Endometrium (inner)
- Two layers: stratum basalis and stratum functionalis - Simple columnar epithelium that forms glands |
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Describe the stratum basalis layer of the uterus.
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- Part of the endometrium (inner layer of uterus)
- Constant layer - Replaces stratum functionalis each cycle |
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Describe the stratum functionalis layer of the uterus.
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- Part of the endometrium (inner layer of uterus)
- Layer where implantation occurs and placenta forms - Sloughed off if no implantation occurs |
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What stimulates the cyclical changes in the uterus?
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LH stimulates ovulation
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Which layer of the uterus responds most dramatically to the cyclical changes in the uterus?
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Stratum functionalis
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What happens if fertilization and implantation do not occur?
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- Progesterone levels drop (due to corpus luteum degenerating)
- Arteries spasm - Startum functionalis is deprived of O2 and nutrients - Vessels open, pressure causes damaged tissue (stratum functionalis) to slough off (menstruation) |
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What stimulates estrogen release?
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FSH stimulates the follicle which leads to fluid accumulation and estrogen release
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What releases progesterone?
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Corpus luteum which is stimulated by LH
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How do the ovaries change during menopause?
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- Follicles that weren't ovulated die off
- Over time the number of follicles decreases - This leads to less estrogen secreted |
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How does menopause lead to change in other organs?
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- Less estrogen so:
- Osteoporosis - Heart disease - Atrophy of breasts, uterus and vagina |
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What is the inferior part of the uterus called?
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Cervix
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Why doesn't the cervix change during the menstrual cycle and pregnancy?
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It needs to retain its form to help keep the fetus in place during pregnancy
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What is the name for childbirth?
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Parturition
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When does the cervix change shape?
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During childbirth - it dilates
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What is the cause of most cases of cervical cancer?
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STDs (HPV: Human Papillomavirus)
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What is the screening test for cervical cancer and how is it performed?
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Pap smear - cells are scraped from external surface of uterus and examined for pathological changes
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Name three functions of the vagina.
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1. Passage of menstrual flow
2. Intercourse 3. Delivery of baby |
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What are the two sheets of muscle that fill in the inferior pelvic outlet and help to support the pelvic organs?
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- Pelvic diaphragm
- Urogenital diaphragm |
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Which diaphragm do the vagina and urethra pass through in females?
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Urogenital diaphragm
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Which diaphragm does the anus pass through in females and males?
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Pelvic diaphragm
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Which diaphragm does the urethra pass through in males?
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Urogenital diaphragm
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What type of muscle forms the pelvic and urogenital diaphragms?
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Skeletal
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What are the functions of the pelvic and urogenital diaphragms?
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Fills the pelvic outlet to support the pelvic organs
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If the diaphragms do not properly contract, what can happen?
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Incontinence
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What type of exercises can be done to strengthen the diaphragm muscles?
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Kegel exercises
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The external genitalia are attached to what?
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Urogenital diaphragm
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What are the external genitalia in females called collectively?
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Vulva
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What are the folds of skin in the vulva that surround the openings of the urethra and vagina?
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Labia majora and labia minora
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What is the name of the erectile organ that is homologous to the penis in females?
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Clitoris
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What kind of glands are mammary glands?
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Specialized sweat glands; exocrine
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What do the lactiferous ducts of the mammary tissue converge to form?
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Nipple
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Growth of the breasts at puberty is due to what tissues growing?
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Ducts and adipose tissue
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Growth of the breasts during pregnancy is due to what?
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Secretory portions of the glands grow
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