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431 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
What are the major functions of blood?
- Transportation
- Regulation
- Protection
What sorts of things are transported in the blood?
Gases and Hormones
What sort of things are regulated by blood?
Body temperature and clotting
What protection does blood provide?
Immune system (WBC)
What are the components of blood? What percentage do they make up?
- Plasma (liquid) - 55%
- Formed elements (solids) - 45%
What are the components of the plasma?
- Proteins (albumin, globulins, fibrinogen)
- Electrolytes (Na+, K+, Cl- Ca2+, etc)
- Dissolved gases (O2, CO2, etc)
- Nutrients and wastes
What are the functions of the main proteins in the plasma?
- Albumin - controls blood volume and BP
- Globulins - immunoglobulins (antibodies), HDL/LDL (shuttle cholesterol)
- Fibrinogen - clotting
What are the formed elements of the blood?
- Red blood cells
- White blood cells
- Platelets
What are the characteristics of red blood cells?
- Incomplete cell because they don't have nuclei
- Packed with Hemoglobin
- Shuttles O2 (and CO2 a bit; CO displaces Hb)
What determines an individual's blood type?
What proteins are on the cells: A, B, A&B, or none, Rh+ or Rh-
What is anemia?
- A decrease in the O2 carrying capacity of RBC
- Due to reduced number of RBC and/or abnormal Hb
What characterizes the disease sickle-cell anemia?
- RBC are misshapen due to mutation of Hb (when the Hb releases O2 the cell changes shape)
- These malformed cells get stuck in small vessels
- RBCs survive only 10-20 days instead of 120
What are WBCs also called? What are the two main categories? Which are specific?
WBC = Leukocytes
1. Granulocytes - nonspecific
2. Agranulocytes - specific
What are the different types of granulocytes? What is their general function?
- Neutrophils
- Basophils
- Eosinophils
- Responsible for non-specific destruction of antigens (foreign substances that enter the body) and damaged tissues
What is the function of a neutrophil? How is it classified?
- Contains lysosomal enzymes
- Responsible for phagocytosis and destruction of damaged cells, bacteria, etc.
- Forms pus
- A type of granulocyte (non-specific WBC)
What is the function of an eosinophil? How it it classified?
- Contains lysosomal enzymes
- Destroys parasites via exocytosis of enzymes
- Also secretes during an allergic reaction
- A type of granulocyte (non-specific WRC)
What is the function of a basophil? How is it classified?
- Contains heparin and histamine
- Anticoagulant (inhibits clotting)
- Promotes leakiness of the vessels
- A type of granulocyte (non-specific WRC)
What are the different types of a granulocytes? What is their general function?
- Monocytes
- Lymphocytes
- Important for specific immunity
What is the function of a monocyte? How is it classified?
- Enters connective tissues to become macrophages, which phagocytose anything
- A type of agranulocyte (specific WRC)
What is the function of a lymphocyte? How is it classified?
- Part of immune system (B cells and T cells)
- Responds to specific antigens
- A type of agranulocyte (specific WRC)
In general, what do B lymphocytes do?
- Respond when bacteria invade
- Secrete antibodies (immunoglobulins)
In general, what do T lymphocytes do?
Respond when viruses invade
What are platelets and what do they contain?
Cell fragments that contain clotting factors
What is hemostasis?
- The control of bleeding
- To function, blood must be a fluid, damage to blood vessels can lead to massive loss of blood
What are the three steps to hemostasis (stopping bleeding)?
1. Platelet clumping at the site of injury - temporary plug
2. Vasoconstriction - blood vessel constricts
3. Clotting - clotting factors released from the platelets and fibrinogen sticks to form blood clot
What is the normal size of the heart?
- Approximately the size of a fist
- 250-350g
- <1 lb.
What is the normal position of the heart?
In between the vertebral column and sternum
Why is it advantageous that the heart is between the vertebral column and sternum?
During chest compressions, the heart is squeezed between them to move blood into the circulation
How is the heart protected from damage as it expands and contracts?
Pericardial sac
What is the function of the pericardial sac?
To minimize friction as the heart expands and contracts
What are the layers of the pericardial sac? Which is inner/outer?
- Visceral pericardium - inner layer fused to the surface of the heart
- Parietal pericardium - outer layer
What is found between the visceral and parietal pericardium?
Pericardial Cavity - contains a thin film of fluid
What is pericardiocentesis?
A procedure in which a clinician sticks a needle between the sternum and ribcage into the pericardial cavity to remove build-up of fluid and blood
Why would a clinician perform a pericardiocentesis?
To help a Pericardial Effusion - a build-up of fluid/blood in the pericardial cavity
What are the three layers of the heart wall?
- Epicardium / Visceral Pericardium
- Myocardium
- Endocardium
What is the endocardium?
The inner lining of the heart wall, in direct contact with the heart
What is the myocardium?
Middle, muscular layer of the heart wall; made of involuntary, cardiac muscle
What is the epicardium?
Part of the pericardial sac that is fused to the surface of the heart (outer lining of the heart wall)
What part of the heart wall is essentially the same thing as the visceral pericardium of the pericardial sac?
Epicardium
What are the two major circuits?
- Pulmonary circulation - to and from the lungs
- Systemic circulation - to and from the rest of the body
Describe the four chambers of the heart.
- Right Atrium - receives O2 poor blood from systemic circuit
- Right Ventricle - receives blood from right atrium and pumps it into the pulmonary circuit
- Left Atrium - Receives O2 rich blood from pulmonary circuit
- Left Ventricle - Receives blood from left atrium and pumps it to entire body
What is the order of blood circulation through the heart, starting as the blood returns from the body?
- Right atrium
- Tricuspid valve
- Right ventricle
- Pulmonic valve
- Pulmonary arteries
- Lungs
- Pulmonary veins
- Left atrium
- Mitral valve
- Left ventricle
- Aortic valve
- Aorta
How does the blood flow pattern determine the anatomy (size, etc.) of the chambers that are responsible for each circuit?
- Right atrium and ventricle send blood to pulmonary circuit; doesn't require as much muscle
- Left atrium and ventricle send blood to the systemic circuit; needs to be more muscular to pump
Where are the semilunar valves?
Separate the ventricles from the pulmonary trunk (R semilunar) and the aorta (L semilunar)
What is the structure of the semilunar valves?
Each has three pocket like cusps shaped roughly like crescent moons (semilunar = half moons)
How does back flow of blood close the semilunar valves?
As ventricles contract and intraventricular pressure rises, blood is pushed up against semilunar valves, forcing them open
- As ventricles relax and intraventricular pressure falls, blood flows back from arteries, filing the cusps of semilunar valves and forcing them to close
Where are the atrioventricular valves located?
- Between atria and ventricles
- Biscupid/mitral valve is on the L side
- Triscuspid valve is on the R side
What other structures are involved with the atrioventricular valves?
- Papillary muscles
- Chordae tendineae
What is the structure of the atrioventricular valve on the left side?
Two cusps (bicuspid) - flaps of endocardium reinforced by cores of dense connective tissue
What is the structure of the atrioventricular valve on the right side?
Three cusps (tricuspid) - flaps of endocardium reinforced by cores of dense connective tissue
How does back flow of blood close the atrioventricular valves? What is the role of the chordae tendineae and papillary muscles in preventing eversion of the AV valves?
- Blood returning to the heart fills the atria, puts pressure against the AV valves and forces them open
- Atria contract, forcing additional blood into ventricles
- Ventricles contract, force blood against and close the AV cusps
- Papillary muscles contract and chordae tendineae tighten, preventing valve flaps from everting into atria
What does the "lub" sound represent?
Lub - when the ventricles contract, the atrioventricular valves close
What does the "dub" sound represent?
Dub - when the ventricles relax, the semilunar valves close
What is a heart murmur?
When a heart valve is not working well it produces a murmur due to the leakage of blood
What is an additional circulatory pattern besides systemic and pulmonary?
Coronary circulation
What are the major arteries of the coronary circulation?
- Right coronary artery
- Marginal artery
- Posterior interventricular artery
- Left coronary artery
- Anterior ventricular artery
- Circumflex artery
What are the major veins of the coronary circulation?
- Great cardiac vein
- Middle cardiac vein
- Small cardiac vein
- Coronary sinus
What are the branches of the right coronary artery?
- Marginal artery
- Posterior interventricular artery
What are the branches of the left coronary artery?
- Anterior interventricular artery
- Circumflex artery
What arteries travel alongside the great cardiac vein?
- Anterior interventricular artery
- Circumflex artery
Which artery travels alongside the middle cardiac vein?
Posterior interventricular artery
Which artery travels alongside the small cardiac vein?
Marginal artery
What are the two surgical procedures that are commonly performed to treat obstructed coronary arteries?
- Angioplasty
- Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting (CABG)
What is the procedure for an angioplasty?
- Dye is injected into a coronary artery
- With an x-ray you can find where the blockage is
- A narrow balloon is inserted via a catheter
- The balloon is inflated to press the plaque against the arterial wall
- This opens the lumen and allows better blood supply
- A stent can be inserted to hold the vessel open
What do the small cardiac vein, middle cardiac vein, and great cardiac vein drain into?
Coronary sinus which drains into the right atrium
What is the procedure for a coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)?
- Dye is injected into a coronary artery
- With an x-ray you can find where the blockage is
- A vein is removed from the leg or arm to bypass the blockage
- The new vein is grafted to the surface of the heart and sutured beyond the level of the obstruction
How is the heart able to maintain its constant level of activity?
An intrinsic innervation called the conducting system, which conducts electrical impulses to the myocardium and causes it to contract on a regular basis
What are the components of the conducting system of the heart?
- SA (sinoatrial) node - pacemaker
- AV (atrioventricular) node
- They form a network of specialized cardiac myocytes that stimulate contraction
What forms the pacemaker of the heart?
Sinoatrial (SA) node
How does the heart contract?
- SA node stimulates the atria to contract
- There is a hesitation that allows for the atria to contract and fill the ventricles with blood before the ventricles contract
- AV node stimulates the ventricles to contract
Where are the nodes of the conducting system located?
- SA node at the top of the right atrium
- AV node at the bottom of the right atrium
How fast would the heart contract without the conduction system stimulating it?
110 beats per minute
How is the heart rate modified by the autonomic nervous system?
- Sympathetic - increases heart rate
- Parasympathetic - vagus nerve decreases heart rate
What is an irregular heart beat called?
Arrhythmia
What are the three vessel types?
1. Artery
2. Capillary
3. Vein
What do arteries do?
Carry blood AWAY from the heart (usually carries oxygenated blood, except in pulmonary circuit the artery is deoxygenated)
What do veins do?
Carry blood TOWARDS the heart (usually carries deoxygenated blood, except in the pulmonary circuit the vein is oxygenated)
What happens in capillaries?
Site of exchange between blood and body tissues
What are the layers of the typical blood vessel?
- Tunica Intima
- Tunica Media
- Tunica Externa
Describe the Tunica Intima of a blood vessel.
- innermost layer that touches blood
- endothelium (simple squamous epithelium)
- thin connective tissue
Describe the Tunica Media of a blood vessel.
- thick middle layer of smooth muscle
- may contain elastic sheets
Describe the Tunica Externa of a blood vessel.
- connective tissue
- contains sympathetic nerves
- may contain vasa vasorum ("vessels of the vessels")
What are the special features of the three layers of the elastic arteries?
- Tunica Intima - present
- Tunica Media - contains elastic sheets (thickest layer)
- Tunica Externa - present
What are the special features of the three layers of the muscular arteries?
- Tunica Intima - present
- Tunica Media - little or no elastin (thickest layer)
- Tunica Externa - present
What are the special features of the three layers of the capillaries?
- Tunica Intima - only layer
- NO tunica media or tunica externa
What are the special features of the three layers of the veins?
- Tunica Intima - forms valves
- Tunica Media - thinner muscular layer
- Tunica Externa - thickest layer
What are the two major classes of arteries? What distinguishes them?
- Elastic Artery (aorta and the first few major branches) -many elastic sheets in the Tunica Media
- Muscular Arteries (all other arteries) - contains very little elastic tissue
Why is it important for the aorta and its branches to be elastic arteries?
- This allows the vessel to expand as it receives blood from the ventricle
- When the ventricle relaxes the elastin recoils to force blood through the vessels
What is atherosclerosis?
- Hardening of the arteries
- Begins after the endothelium is damaged
- Plaque accumulates in the tunica intima
- The lumen gets smaller and reduces blood flow to that part of the body
Which type of vessel is susceptible to atherosclerosis?
Arteries
Which of the three tunics is affected by atherosclerosis?
Tunica Intima
What are the risk factors for atherosclerosis?
- Smoking
- Obesity
- High cholesterol
- High BP
- Sedentary life
- Diabetes
- Gender
- Age
Due to high pressure, arteries are subject to forming what?
Aneurysms
What is an aneurysm? Why is it dangerous?
- Weakness in the wall of a vessel
- The high pressure of blood makes it balloon
- If the vessel expands too much it can rupture
How is blood flow through veins regulated?
- Valves keep blood flowing in one direction
- Muscle contraction helps push blood towards heart
What are varicose veins? Why do they form?
- When valves in veins stop working
- Blood pools in veins making them enlarged
What are the three types of capillaries?
- Continuous
- Fenestrated
- Sinusoidal
Describe continuous capillaries and provide examples of where it is found.
- Found where exchange must be controlled tightly
- Found in the CNS (to control what ions are around ions) and around muscles
Describe fenestrated capillaries and provide examples of where it is found.
- Found where freer exchange is necessary
- Found in endocrine glands and at the kidney
Describe sinusoidal/discontinuous capillaries and provide examples of where it is found.
- Found where very free exchange occurs
- Found in the spleen, liver, lymphatic vessels
How is circulation through a capillary bed regulated?
- With pre capillary sphincters which relax to allow blood to enter the capillary bed and contract to divert blood past the capillary bed
- This is important so that blood goes to the parts of the body where it is needed most
What is a portal system?
A system where blood flows through two separate capillary beds before returning to the heart
What are the two capillary beds called in a portal system? What are they connected with?
- Primary and secondary
- Vein
What happens at the primary and secondary capillary beds?
- Substances enter the bloodstream at the primary capillary bed
- Substances exit the bloodstream at the secondary capillary bed
What are the two examples of portal systems?
- Pituitary portal system
- Hepatic portal system
Describe the pituitary portal system.
- Releasing and inhibiting hormones are released from the superior hypophyseal artery and enter blood at the primary capillary bed
- Blood flows through portal venules
- Releasing and inhibiting hormones exit the blood at the secondary capillary bed
- Hormones of the pituitary gland enter the blood and are carried away by the vein at the secondary capillary bed
Describe the hepatic portal system.
- Nutrients and toxins enter the blood at the primary capillary bed (stomach and intestine)
- Nutrients and toxins exit the blood at the secondary capillary bed (liver)
What is collateral circulation?
Alternative pathways for delivering blood to a region of the body
Why is collateral circulation important?
If one vessel is blocked, blood can still get to the region by an alternative route
Do all ares of the body have collateral circulation?
No
What is blood pressure?
A measurement of the force applied by blood to the arterial wall
Which vessel is commonly used to measure blood pressure?
Brachial artery
What is the difference between systolic and diastolic pressure?
- Systolic is the first number - as the cuff is deflated, blood starts to flow through due to contraction of the ventricle (blood flow sounds irregular)
- Diastolic is the second number - as the cuff is deflated further, eventually blood flows smoothly with no irregular sounds
What is hypertension?
- High blood pressure
- A measurement that is consistently over 140/85
- AKA silent killer
- Treated with a variety of medications
What are the branches of the aortic arch?
- Common Carotid
- Subclavian
What does the common carotid branch into? What do these arteries supply blood to?
- Internal carotid (to the brain) - part of the circle of Willis
- External carotid (to the neck and superficial head)
What does the subclavian branch into? What do these arteries supply blood to?
- Vertebral (to the brain) - part of the circle of Willis
- Axillary (to the upper limb)
What arteries form the circle of Willis?
- Internal carotid artery
- Vertebral artery
What arteries leave the aortic arch to supply blood to the upper limb?
Subclavian (under clavicle)
--> Axillary (armpit)
--> Brachial (upper arm)
--> Radial and Ulnar (lower arm)
What are the branches of the descending aorta?
- Intercostal
- Lumbar
- Renal
- Celiac
- Superior Mesenteric
- Inferior Mesenteric
What does the intercostal artery branch off of? What does it supply blood to?
- From descending aorta
- To the thoracic wall
What does the lumbar artery branch off of? What does it supply blood to?
- From descending aorta
- To the abdominal wall
What does the renal artery branch off of? What does it supply blood to?
- Branches off of descending aorta
- To the kidneys
What does the celiac artery branch off of? What does it supply blood to?
- Branches off of descending aorta
- Goes to abdominal organs through half of the duodenum
What does the superior mesenteric artery branch off of? What does it supply blood to?
- Branches off of descending aorta
- Goes to second half of the duodenum through the transverse colon
What does the inferior mesenteric artery branch off of? What does it supply blood to?
- Branches off of the descending aorta
- Goes to descending colon through sigmoid colon
What are the terminal branches of the aorta?
- Internal iliac artery
- External iliac artery
What does the internal iliac artery branch off of? What does it supply blood to?
- From the terminal branch of the aorta
- Goes to the pelvic organs and the gluteal region
What does the external iliac artery branch off of? What does it supply blood to?
- From the terminal branch of the aorta
- Goes tot he lower limbs
What is the pathway of arteries through the leg?
External iliac (pelvic region
--> Femoral (thigh)
--> Popliteal (posterior knee)
--> Anterior tibial and posterior tibial (lower leg)
What is the function of the immune system?
- Protection - usually stimulated by foreign organisms
- Must be able to distinguish between "self" and "non-self"
What is an antigen?
A protein on the surface of bacteria/viruses/etc. that are recognized as foreign
Which cell types attack antigens nonspecifically? How do they attack them?
- Macrophages
- Neutrophils
- Use phagocytosis to destroy ANY foreign antigen
Which cell types attack antigens specifically?
Lymphocytes (B & T)
Where do lymphocytes get educated to recognize self vs. non-self?
- B cells are educated in the bone marrow
- T cells are educated in the thymus
Where are lymphocytes created? Where do they travel to for education?
- All are generated in the bone marrow
- B cells stay in the bone marrow
- T cells travel to the thymus
After B and T lymphocytes have learned which antigens they each respond to they are are called what?
Immunocompetent
What kind of antigens stimulate T cells?
Intracellular antigens (viruses)
What kind of immunity do B cells give?
Antibody Mediated Immunity
What kind of immunity do T cells give?
Cell Mediated Immunity
What other kinds of cells are necessary for activation of T cells (CD8)?
- Activated helper T cells help activate CD8 T cells
- Helper T cells are activated by Macrophages which present the antigen
What is an antigen-presenting cell?
Macrophages
How do the CD8 T cells respond when activated?
When activated, CD8 T cell divides and form:
- Memory cells
- Active CD8 cells (effector cells) that kill other infected cells by secreting chemicals
What is the function of effector cells?
Immediate response to kill current infection
What is the function of memory cells?
They do not respond during the current infection, but can respond quickly if the same antigen ever enters the body
How are Helper T cells (CD4) activated?
1. A macrophage ingests the antigen, degrades it and presents a small portion on the surface
2. The inactive helper T cell binds to the presented antigen via the helper T cell receptor
3. The macrophage secretes chemicals that help activate the helper T cell
How are T cells (CD8) activated?
1. A macrophage presents the antigen
2. CD8 T cell binds to it
3. An activated helper T (CD4) cell specific for the same antigen recognizes the macrophage/CD8 cell complex
4. The helper T cell secretes chemicals to activate the CD8 cell
5. The CD8 cell divides to form memory cells and effector cells (active CD8 cells)
What kind of antigens stimulate B cells?
Extracellular antigens (bacteria)
What other kind of cells are necessary for B cell activation?
- Helper T cells help activate B cells
- Helper T cells are activated by macrophages
How do the B cells respond when activated?
When activated, B cells divide and form:
- Memory cells for the next exposure
- Plasma cells to secrete antibodies
What is the function of B effector/plasma cells?
Secrete antibodies (antibody-mediated immunity)
What is the function of memory B cells?
To be prepared for the next exposure to release antibodies
How will the B cell response differ on subsequent exposure to the same antigen?
You will have increased release of immunoglobulins (antibodies) much more quickly than the first exposure
How are B cells activated?
1. B cell binds, ingests, degrades and presents another copy of the antigen
2. Activated Helper T cells specific for the same antigen recognize the presented antigen
3. Helper cell secretes chemicals to activate the B cell
4. The B cell divides to form plasma cells and memory cells
How does HIV affect the immune system?
It infects and destroys the Helper T cells (CD4)
How does a vaccination work?
- An intentional exposure to a common disease causing organism (weakened or inactive)
- This stimulates the immune system to respond and to form memory cells
- You usually receive multiple vaccinations so that many memory cells are produced
- If you are ever exposed to the bacterium or virus your body is prepared to destroy it
What is an autoimmune disease?
- When the immune system recognizes its own tissues as foreign
- The immune system starts to destroy its own cells
Why is the lymphatic system necessary?
- The exchange that occurs in the capillary beds is very inefficient
- Far more substances exit the blood than are regained
- The lymphatic system is necessary to obtain the important fluids and dissolved substances from the interstitial fluid
What are the functions of the lymphatic system?
- Returns proteins to the blood
- Filters antigens (foreign substances) from the lymph
- Delivers fats absorbed in the gut to the blood
How do lymphatic vessels differ from blood vessels so they can serve these functions?
They are discontinuous capillaries that take in substances too large to reenter the blood capillaries
What may happen if the lymphatic system does not work properly?
Edema
What is edema caused by?
When lymphatic vessels do not remove extracellular protein from the extracellular space and return it to the bloodstream, water accumulates in the extracellular compartment (where the protein concentration is higher)
Through what lymphatic vessels is the lymph returned to the bloodstream?
- Thoracic Duct
- Right Lymphatic Duct
From what part of the body does the thoracic duct drain lymph?
3/4 of the body (L arm, L upper body, and lower body/legs)
From what part of the body does the right lymphatic duct drain lymph?
1/4 of the body (R arm and R upper body)
Where do the thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct drain the lymph into?
The subclavian vein and internal jugular vein
What are the major mechanisms that cause lymph to flow in the proper direction?
- Valves
- Compression as neighboring muscles contract
- "Negative pressure" in the thorax
Because lymphatic vessels recover and transport not only desirable substances but foreign substances (antigens) too, what must the lymph pass through before it delivers the blood to the veins?
Lymph node
What is the function of a lymph node?
Destroys antigens in the lymph before returning it to the blood
What is the structure of a lymph node?
- Outer layer: cortex
- Inner layer: medulla
What is the function of the cortex of the lymph node?
- Contains masses of lymphocytes
- It is the site of the specific immune response
What is the function of the medulla of the lymph node?
- Contains macrophages
- It is the site of the nonspecific destruction of antigens by phagocytosis
What is the function of the spleen?
- To destroy any antigens that do manage to get past the lymph nodes and enter the blood
- Destroys damaged red blood cells
What is the location of the spleen?
Curves around the left side of the stomach
What are the two significant structures in the spleen?
- White pulp
- Red pulp
What is found in the white pulp? What is the function?
- Masses of lymphocytes (WBCs)
- Specific recognition by B and T lymphocytes
What is the red pulp? What is the function?
- Elaborate networks of discontinuous blood capillaries
- Nonspecific destruction by macrophages
Where is the nonspecific (phagocytosis) immune response in the lymph node?
Medulla (and cortex)
Where is the specific immune response in the lymph node?
Cortex
Where is the nonspecific (phagocytosis) immune response in the spleen?
Red pulp
Where is the specific immune response in the spleen?
White pulp
What is the primary function of the respiratory system?
Exchange of gases to supply the body with oxygen and to eliminate carbon dioxide
What are secondary functions of the respiratory system?
- Generates sound
- Houses the sensory receptors for olfaction
What are the organs involved in respiration?
- Nasal cavity
- Pharynx
- Larynx
- Trachea
- Bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
- Lungs
What are the two distinct portions of the respiratory tract?
- Conducting portion
- Respiratory portion
What are the functions of the conducting portion of the respiratory tract?
- Maintains an open airway so air can be exchanged constantly
- "Conditions" the air
Which organs are involved in the conducting portion of the respiratory tract?
- Nasal cavity
- Pharynx
- Larynx
- Trachea
- Bronchi
What is the function of the respiratory portion of the respiratory tract?
Site of gas exchange
What organs are involved in the respiratory portion of the respiratory tract?
- Lungs
- Alveoli
What are the functions of the nasal cavity?
- Conditions the air
- Filters out particulates
- Warms and humidifies the air
What kinds of epithelium line the nasal cavity to accomplish its functions? What are these functions?
- Respiratory epithelium - traps and eliminates inhaled debris
- Olfactory epithelium - chemicals stimulate the neurons of cranial nerve I
Which cell types are found in the respiratory epithelium? What are their functions?
- Pseudostratified columnar with cilia - beats the mucus out of the tract
- Goblet cells - secrete mucus to trap particles that you inhale
What is the location of the olfactory epithelium?
In the roof of the nasal cavity
Where are the nasal conchae?
In the nasal cavity
What is the function of the nasal conchae?
- Increases surface area
- Makes the air swirl as it passes through the nasal cavity
As you inhale, air passes from the nasal cavity into what structure?
The pharynx
The pharynx is an organ shared by what systems?
Respiratory tract
Digestive tract
What are the three segments of the pharynx?
- Nasopharynx
- Oropharynx
- Laryngopharynx
What is the location of the nasopharynx?
- Behind the nasal cavity
- Above the soft palate
What is the location of the oropharynx?
- Behind the oral cavity
- Between the palate and epiglottis
What is the location of the laryngopharynx?
- Behind the larynx
In which segment of the pharynx does the auditory tube open?
Nasopharynx
Which regions of the pharynx are used by both the respiratory and digestive systems?
- Oropharynx
- Laryngopharynx
Which region of the pharynx is used only by the respiratory system?
Nasopharynx
What prevents food and liquids from entering the larynx?
Epiglottis
When the respiratory and digestive systems diverge, the air continues through what structure?
Larynx
When the respiratory and digestive systems diverge, the food and drink continue through what structure?
Laryngopharynx and into the esophagus
What are the functions of the larynx?
- Conducts air
- Produces sound - "voice box"
How is the larynx held open?
Cartilage
What are the cartilages of the larynx?
- Thyroid (adam's apple)
- Cricoid
- Arytenoid
What is the large C-shaped cartilage of the larynx that forms the Adam's apple?
Thyroid
What is the smaller C-shaped cartilage of the larynx, that is lower down, just above the trachea?
Cricoid
What is the cartilage of the larynx that is important for moving the vocal cords?
Arytenoid
How do we produce sounds of different pitches?
- By moving at the joints between the cartilages, the length and tension on the vocal cords change
- This changes the pitch of the sound
What is the range of a person's voice determined by?
- Size of their larynx
- This is determined by the size of the thyroid cartilage
- Males have larger thyroid cartilages due to higher levels of testosterone
What is the next organ beyond the larynx?
Trachea
Can the trachea be open and closed?
No, it must always be open because it is part of the conducting portion of the respiratory system
What is the structure of the trachea?
- Tube that is held open by C-shaped rings of cartilage
- Lined by respiratory epithelium
- On side of trachea not containing cartilage there is smooth muscle
Where is the trachea relative to the esophagus?
Anterior
The trachea descend through the neck and upper chest before branching into what?
Bronchi
Where do bronchi enter the lungs?
At the medial side of each lung at the lung's hilus
How can you distinguish between the right and left lungs?
- The right lung has 3 lobes
- The left lung has 2 lobes
What does the term hilus mean?
The area where the bronchi, vessels, nerves, etc. enter the lungs
Describe the branching pattern of the bronchi?
- Two primary bronchii, one for each lung (2)
- This branches into the secondary bronchii, one for each lobe (5)
- These branch into tertiary brachii which turn into bronchioles and finally end with alveoli
How are bronchioles different than bronchi?
Bronchioles have thinner walls without cartilage
What kind of epithelium lines the alveoli?
- Simple squamous epithelium (thinnest)
- Reduces barrier between the blood and air
What is the function of Type I cells of the alveoli?
Gas exchange
What is the function of Type II cells of the alveoli?
Secretes surfactant which prevents alvoli from totally collapsing
What prevents alveoli from collapsing?
The surfactant released from Type II cells
What is the function of alveolar macrophages?
Phagocytose debris the alveolus
How does the diaphragm control breathing?
- When diaphragm contracts it descends, this increases the thoracic cavity size which decreases the pressure, thus air rushes in (INHALATION)
- When diaphragm relaxes it pushes up, this decreases the volume of thoracic cavity, increasing pressure, air rushes out (EXHALATION)
What happens when the diaphragm contracts?
Inhalation
What happens when the diaphragm relaxes?
Exhalation
How do the elastic fibers in the alveolar walls assist inhalation/exhalation?
- Elastic fibers are stretched during inhalation
- Elastic fibers relax during inhalation
What disease destroys the elastic fibers?
Emphysema (smoking damages elastic fibers)
What is the purpose of the pleural sac?
To prevent damage to the surface of the lung as it expands and recoils
What are the two layers of the pleural sac (found on the lung)?
- Visceral pleura (on lung)
- Parietal pleura (lining thoracic wall)
What lining is found on the surface of the lung?
Visceral pleura
What lining is found on surface of the thoracic wall?
Parietal pleura
What separates the visceral pleura and the parietal pleura?
Thin fluid-filled cavity
What 5 processes are performed by the digestive system?
- Ingestion
- Propulsion
- Digestion
- Absorption
- Defecation
What does the propulsion function of the digestive system include?
- Swallowing
- Peristalsis
What are the two components of digestion by the digestive system?
- Mechanical Digestion (chewing)
- Chemical Digestion (enzymes)
What are the organs of the digestive system, and in what order does food/fluid pass through them?
- Mouth
- Pharynx
- Esophagus
- Stomach
- Small Intestine (duodenum, jéjunum, ileum)
- Large Intestine / Colon (ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid, rectum, anal canal, anus)
What glands are associated with the digestive tract and where are they located?
- Salivary glands - mouth
- Liver - above stomach
- Gall Bladder - under liver
- Pancreas - under stomach
What glands secrete into the small intestine?
- Liver
- Gall Bladder
- Pancreas
What roles does the mouth play in digestion?
- Site of ingestion
- Begins digestion via mechanical methods (chewing) and chemical methods (enzymes in saliva)
What are the functions of the salivary glands in the mouth?
Secrete saliva
- Chemically digests carbohydrates
- Dissolves food for tasting
- Dissolves food for swallowing
What is the significance of the pharynx in digestion?
Food passes through the oropharynx and laryngopharynx
What is the the role of the esophagus in digestion?
Contracts to move food to the stomach
What structure prevents food from entering the trachea?
Epiglottis
What structure prevents food from entering the nasal cavity?
Soft Palate
What are the four layers in the wall of the digestive tract?
- Mucosa
- Submucosa
- Muscularis
- Serosa
What are the components of the inner layer of the wall of the digestive tract?
Mucosa
- Epithelium
- Lamina Propria
- Muscularis Mucosa
What are the components of the muscular layer of the wall of the digestive tract?
Muscularis
- Inner circular muscle
- Outer longitudental muscle
What are the components of the outer layer of the wall of the digestive tract?
Serosa
- Epithelium
- Connective Tissue
What are the three functions of the stomach?
1. Storage
2. Mechanical Digestion
3. Chemical Digestion
What prevents damage to the stomach lining?
Mucus
What is an ulcer?
- When lining of stomach (or small intestine erodes)
- Can penetrate entire thickness of wall
- Due to bacterial infection (Heliobacter pylori)
- Treats with antibiotics
What causes heartburn?
- If cardiac sphincter relaxes, stomach contents can move up in esophagus
- This irritates lining and hurts
What are the three segments of the small intestine?
1. Duodenum
2. Jejunum
3. Ileum
What are the general functions of the small intestine?
- Finishing digestion
- Absorption continues (vast majority occurs here)
How is the small intestine's structure specialized to maximize absorption?
- Folds in the wall to increase surface area
- Additional projections (villi) and indentations (glands)
- At tip of villi there are microvilli projecting off of individual cells
- These folds increase SA about 600x
Where do the various nutrients go after they are absorbed in the small intestine?
- Amino Acids and Sugars are absorbed into blood capillaries and are sent to the hepatic portal system
- Fats are received by lymphatic capillaries and are sent directly to general circulation
Where do toxins go that are absorbed in the small intestine?
Toxins are received by blood capillaries and are sent to the hepatic portal system
If too many toxins are absorbed it can lead to organ damage. Which organ is most likely to be affected?
Liver
What is the route of toxins, amino acids, and sugars in the hepatic portal system?
- Enter in primary capillary bed at stomach and intestine
- Exit in secondary capillary bed at liver
Which glands deliver their secretory products to the duodenum?
- Liver
- Gall Bladder
- Pancreas
What are the functions of the secretory products of the liver? Where are they delivered?
- Synthesizes bile for digestion of fats
- Secreted into duodenum
What are the functions of the secretory products of the gall bladder? Where are they delivered?
- Stores and concentrates the bile until food enters the duodenum
- Secreted into duodenum
What are the functions of the secretory products of the pancreas? Where are they delivered?
Digests all types of food
- Lipase - fats
- Amylase - carbs
- Peptidase - proteins
(Exocrine function)
- Secreted into duodenum
What are the two functions of the colon / large intestine?
- Absorption of water and electrolytes
- Production of feces
What are the two major cell types in the epithelium lining the large intestine?
- Goblet cells
- Absorptive cells
What is the function of the goblet cells of the large intestine?
Secretes mucus to lubricate and protect surfaces
What is the function of the absorptive cells of the large intestine?
Absorbs water and electrolytes
What controls defecation?
Anal sphincter:
- Muscularis externa thickens to form smooth muscle sphincter (stronger)
- External anal sphincter from skeletal muscle (controllable)
What causes diarrhea?
If feces move too quickly through the large intestine there is not enough water resorbed and the feces is watery
What are the four systems for removing wastes from the body?
- Urinary system
- Digestive system
- Reproductive system
- Skin
What are the four organs of the urinary system?
- Kidney
- Ureter
- Bladder
- Urethra
What are the four major functions of the kidney?
- Filtration of blood
- Regulation of blood volume/pressure
- Secretion of hormones
- Regulation of CO2 and acid-base balance of body fluids
What are the three major regions within the kidney?
- Cortex
- Medulla
- Sinus or Pelvis
What structures are contained in the cortex of the kidney?
- Superficial tissue
- Renal columns
- Kidney tubules
What structures are contained in the medulla of the kidney?
- Renal pyramids
- Kidney tubules
What structures are contained in the sinus/pelvis of the kidney?
- Minor calyx
- Major calyx
Each kidney contains approximately 1,000,000 functional units called what?
Nephrons
What are the components of the nephron?
- Vascular components
- Tubular components
What are the vascular components of the nephron?
- Glomerulus
- Peritubular capillaries
What are the tubular components of the nephron?
- Glomerular capsule
- Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
- Loop of Henle
- Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
- Collecting duct
Why do the kidneys require a disproportionately high volume of blood for their size? How much do they receive?
- Because they are specialized to "clean" the blood
- They receive 20-25% of cardiac output
Describe blood flow throughout the kidneys (vessels that lead into and away from the renal corpuscle)
1. Afferent arteriole
2. Glomerulus
3. Efferent arteriole
4. Capillary beds (Peritubular capillaries and Vasa Recta)
What is the major artery that enters the kidney?
Renal artery
Where does filtration of the blood occur?
Urinary filter in the cortex
What are the three layers of the urinary filter?
1. Fenestrated endothelium of the glomerulus
2. Basement membrane
3. Podocyte filtration slits
How do the fenestrated endothelium of the glomerulus (part of the urinary filter) filter the blood?
Based on size; formed elements can't pass (RBCs, WBCs, platelets)
How does the basement membrane (part of the urinary filter) filter the blood?
Filteras based on size and charge; substances over 70,000 daltons or too negatively charged can't pass
How do the podocyte filtration slits (part of the urinary filter) filter the blood?
Filter based on size
Where are substances recovered from the urine?
- H2O
- Salts (Na+, Cl-,
- Glucose
- Amino acids
- Small proteins
What is the role of the peritubular capillaries and vasa recta?
Permits extensive exchange between blood and filtrate in the tubules
What are the peritubular capillaries interacting with?
Convoluted tubules in cortex
What is the vasa recta interacting with?
Loops of Henle and collecting ducts in renal pyramids of medulla
How are the capillary beds (peritubular capillaries and vasa recta) connected in the kidney? What is the significance of this?
- By an arteriole
- Not a portal system (connected by a vein)
- Small veins look like capillaries (only tunica intima)
- Arterioles have at least one layer of smooth muscle for regulation of blood flow
What hormones affect function of the kidney tubules?
- Aldosterone
- ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
- ANF (atrial natriuretic factor)
What hormone(s) are released if blood pressure is too low?
- Aldosterone
- ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
What hormone(s) is released if blood pressure is too high?
ANF (atrial natriuretic factor)
What is the function of aldosterone? Where does it have its affect?
- Increase resorption of Na+ and H2O
- Increases blood pressure
- Affects Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
What is the function of ADH (antidiuretic hormone)? Where does it have its affect?
- Increase resorption of Na+ and H2O
- Increases blood pressure
- Affects collecting ducts
What is the function of ANF (atrial natriuretic factor)? Where does it have its affect?
- Inhibits aldosterone secretion
- Lowers blood pressure
- Affects adrenal cortex
After urine is made in the kidneys, it is transported to what?
By the ureters to the urinary bladder
What is the function of the ureters?
Muscular tube that contracts to force urine from the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder for storage
What is the function of the urinary bladder?
Storage of urine
What prevents reflux of urine from the urinary bladder into the ureter?
- Ureter penetrates the bladder at an angle
- As bladder fills it pushes the wall of bladder against the ureter to seal the opening
How is the epithelium of the ureters and urinary bladder specialized to accommodate the changes in volume that they hold?
- Transitional Epithelium / Urothelium
- Cells can break and reform junctions as necessary
- Must be able to adapt quickly
What is the function of the urethra?
Removes urine from the bladder
What are the three parts of the male urethra?
1. Prostatic Urethra - surrounded by prostate gland
2. Membranous Urethra - surrounded by skeletal muscle (voluntary control)
3. Penile / Spongy Urethra - surrounded by spongy erectile tissue
How does the difference between male and female urethras make females more susceptible to UTIs?
Females have much shorter urethras
How is urination controlled?
Urethral sphincters
- Muscularis externa (smooth) - internal urethral sphincter
- External urethral sphincter (skeletal) - controllable
What are the functions of the male reproductive system?
- Synthesis of sperm
- Storage of sperm
- Delivery of sperm tot he female reproductive tract
What are the organs and glands of the male reproductive tract?
- Testis
- Scrotum
- Epididymis
- Vas deferens
- Ejaculatory duct
- Urethra
- Seminal vesicle
- Prostate gland
- Bulbourethral gland
- Penis
Where do the testes develop?
In the abdominal cavity
Where do the testes move during development?
They descend through the inguinal canal and into the scrotum
What is the inguinal canal?
Pathway through the body wall that testes descend through
What is the spermatic cord?
The combination of the vas deferens, vessels and nerves that connect to the testes
What can happen if the inguinal canal does not seal off after descent of the testis?
Inguinal hernias - a loop of the small intestine can descend through the inguinal canal (a weak area)
Why is it necessary for the testes to lie outside of the abdominal cavity?
Cooler temperature outside of the body for sperm production
What is the name of the connective tissue that surrounds the testes like a capsule?
Tunica Albuginea
What are the extensions of capsule that divide and support the testes?
Septa
What structures are coiled between the septa in the testes?
Seminiferous tubules
Where are the sperm produced?
Seminiferous tubules
Why are so many sperm made?
So that you increase the likelihood of fertilization
What happens to sperm that are not ejaculated?
They are broken down and resorbed
After meiosis, sperm are at what level of DNA?
Haploid
What process converts a round spermatogenic cell to a lean, mean mature sperm?
Spermiogenesis
What are the three parts of a sperm?
- Head
- Midpiece
- Tail
What is contained in the head of the sperm?
DNA and acrosome (contains enzymes for fertilization)
What is contained in the mid piece of the sperm?
Many mitochondria for energy production
What is in the tail of the sperm?
The flagellum which allows the sperm to swim
In addition to the spermatogenic cells there are other important cells in the testes called what?
- Sertoli (or sustentocytes)
- Leydic (or interstitial)
Where are the Sertoli cells found?
Within the seminiferous tubules
What are some major functions of the Sertoli cells?
- Deliver nutrients to spermatogenic cells
- Respond to FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) and secrete ABP (androgen binding protein)
- Form the blood-testis barrier - protect developing sperm from cells of the immune system that are in the connective tissue between tubules
Where are the interstitial / Leydig cells located?
Between the seminiferous tubules
What are the functions of the Leydic / interstitial cells?
Secrete testosterone
What are the functions of the epididymis?
- Resorbs shed cytoplasm and damaged sperm
- Stores sperm
- Site of sperm maturation
- Site of swimming lessons
What are the functions of the ductus (vas) deferens?
- Stores sperm
- Contracts during sexual response to push sperm out
What are the three accessory glands of the male reproductive system?
- Seminal vesicles
- Prostate gland
- Bulbourethral gland
What is the function of the seminal vesicles?
- Adds secretions to sperm
- Fructose is an energy source for the sperm
- Substances that neutralize the acidity of the vagina
What is the function of the prostate gland?
- Adds secretions to sperm
- Includes enzymes that liquefy the sperm so sperm have less viscous fluid to swim through
What is the function of the bulbourethral gland?
- Secretes during sexual response to flush any residual urine from urethra
- This increases survivability of sperm
What is semen?
The fluid that includes the secretions of the there accessory glands and the sperm
What two structures join to form the ejaculatory duct?
- Vas deferens
- Seminal vesicles duct
What is the function of the ejaculatory duct?
To combine the sperm from the vas deferens with the secretions from the seminal vesicles; leads into the urethra where the two ejaculatory ducts combine
Why is the prostate gland important clinically?
It is very susceptible to cancer
Where is the prostate gland?
Surrounds the proximal part of the urethra
If the prostate gland were enlarged, what symptoms would the patient have?
It may compress the urethra and lead to urinary difficulties
What are the structures that make up the penis?
- Tunica albuginea
- Corpus cavernosum (x2)
- Corpus spongiosum
- Glans penis
- Prepuce
What is the dense connective tissue that surrounds the networks of blood vessels in the penis?
Tunica albuginea
What is the tunica albuginea?
The dense connective tissue that surrounds the networks of blood vessels in the penis (corpus cavernous and corpus spongiosum)
What are the three cylinders of erectile tissue?
- 2x corpus cavernosum
- 2x corpus spongiosum
Which cylinder of erectile tissue surrounds the urethra and forms the glans?
Corpus spongiosum
What tissue of the penis forms the head?
Glans
Which tissue is removed during circumcision?
Prepuce (foreskin)
What is erectile tissue?
- Three cylinders (2x corpus cavernosum, 1x corpus spongiosum)
- Fills with blood during the sexual response to become erect
What are the functions of the female reproductive system?
- Synthesize oocytes (ova, eggs)
- Store and nourish oocytes until fertilization
- Potentially house and nourish the embryo until the time of birth
What are the four main organs of the female reproductive system?
- Ovaries
- Uterine tubes / oviducts / fallopian tubes
- Uterus (body and cervix)
- Vagina
Where are oocytes made?
In the ovaries
What are the layers of the ovary? What do they contain?
- Tunica Albuginea (capsule)
- Cortex (outer) - contains follicles
- Medulla (inner) - contains large branches of vessels)
Where are oocytes found?
Inside follicles in the cortex of the ovary
When are the oocytes made?
Prenatally (females are born with all the oocytes they will ever have)
When do oocytes start to mature?
During puberty, each month
What do all oocytes have in common regardless of the stage of maturation?
They are all separated from the surrounding connective tissue by a layer of epithelial cells called follicular cells
What does a follicle consist of?
- Oocyte
- Follicular cells
How does a follicle develop from the primordial to mature stage?
- FSH stimulates the follicle
- Follicular cells divide and secrete estrogen and fluid that accumulates in the follicle
- Estrogen secretion causes a surge of LH secretion from pituitary
- LH stimulates ovulation
- Oocyte and follicular cells are released from ovary
- Corpus luteum forms from remainder of follicle
- LH causes corpus lutem to secrete progesterone to stimulate growth of uterus
What is the role of the follicular cells?
- Separates the oocyte from the surrounding connective tissues
- Shuttles nutrients to oocytes
- Secretes estrogen
- Secretes fluid that accumulates in follicle
Over the course of a woman's reproductive years, approximately how many oocytes of how many total are released from the overt during ovulation?
500 of 5 million oocytes
Most cells of the mature follicle remain in the ovary after ovulation. What structure do these cells form?
Corpus Luteum
Which hormone does the corpus luteum produce?
Progesterone (stimulates growth of uterus)
Which hormone stimulates the formation of the corpus luteum?
Estrogen leads to LH surge which causes the corpus luteum
After ovulation, what enters the uterine tube?
The oocyte and a layer of follicular cells
How is the uterine tube specialized to move the oocyte/zygote towards to the uterus?
- Ciliated cells
- Chemoattractants
Where does the oocyte get fertilized?
In the uterine tube
Describe the structure of the uterine tube.
- Opening is wide; gets narrower as it approaches the uterus (like a funnel)
- 3 histological layers: mucosa, muscularis, serosa
Describe the three histological layers of the uterine tube?
- Mucosa - epithelium (ciliated cells, peg cells), lamina propria
- Muscularis - contracts to move the egg towards the uterus
- Serosa
Most cells of the mature follicle remain in the ovary after ovulation. What structure do these cells form?
Corpus Luteum
What happens to the oocyte if it is not fertilized within 72 hrs after ovulation?
Egg willl degenerate
Which hormone does the corpus luteum produce?
Progesterone (stimulates growth of uterus)
How is the uterine tube specialized to provide nutrition for the oocyte/zygote?
Peg cells - secrete nutrients into the uterine tube for nourishment of oocyte/zygote until it implants
Which hormone stimulates the formation of the corpus luteum?
Estrogen leads to LH surge which causes the corpus luteum
After ovulation, what enters the uterine tube?
The oocyte and a layer of follicular cells
How is the uterine tube specialized to move the oocyte/zygote towards to the uterus?
- Ciliated cells
- Chemoattractants
Where does the oocyte get fertilized?
In the uterine tube
Describe the structure of the uterine tube.
- Opening is wide; gets narrower as it approaches the uterus (like a funnel)
- 3 histological layers: mucosa, muscularis, serosa
Describe the three histological layers of the uterine tube?
- Mucosa - epithelium (ciliated cells, peg cells), lamina propria
- Muscularis - contracts to move the egg towards the uterus
- Serosa
What happens to the oocyte if it is not fertilized within 72 hrs after ovulation?
Egg willl degenerate
How is the uterine tube specialized to provide nutrition for the oocyte/zygote?
Peg cells - secrete nutrients into the uterine tube for nourishment of oocyte/zygote until it implants
What could happen if the zygote did not reach the uterus before implantation?
Ectopic pregnancy - mostly leads to death of embryo
What is the surgical procedure for female sterilization?
Tubal Ligation
What are the layers of the uterus?
- Perimetrium / Serosa (outer)
- Myometrium (middle)
- Endometrium (inner)
Describe the outer layer of the uterus.
- Perimetrium / Serosa (outer)
- Connective tissue
Describe the middle layer of the uterus.
- Myometrium (middle)
- Very thick with 3 layers
- Contracts during childbirth and menstrual cramps
Describe the inner layer of the uterus.
- Endometrium (inner)
- Two layers: stratum basalis and stratum functionalis
- Simple columnar epithelium that forms glands
Describe the stratum basalis layer of the uterus.
- Part of the endometrium (inner layer of uterus)
- Constant layer
- Replaces stratum functionalis each cycle
Describe the stratum functionalis layer of the uterus.
- Part of the endometrium (inner layer of uterus)
- Layer where implantation occurs and placenta forms
- Sloughed off if no implantation occurs
What stimulates the cyclical changes in the uterus?
LH stimulates ovulation
Which layer of the uterus responds most dramatically to the cyclical changes in the uterus?
Stratum functionalis
What happens if fertilization and implantation do not occur?
- Progesterone levels drop (due to corpus luteum degenerating)
- Arteries spasm
- Startum functionalis is deprived of O2 and nutrients
- Vessels open, pressure causes damaged tissue (stratum functionalis) to slough off (menstruation)
What stimulates estrogen release?
FSH stimulates the follicle which leads to fluid accumulation and estrogen release
What releases progesterone?
Corpus luteum which is stimulated by LH
How do the ovaries change during menopause?
- Follicles that weren't ovulated die off
- Over time the number of follicles decreases
- This leads to less estrogen secreted
How does menopause lead to change in other organs?
- Less estrogen so:
- Osteoporosis
- Heart disease
- Atrophy of breasts, uterus and vagina
What is the inferior part of the uterus called?
Cervix
Why doesn't the cervix change during the menstrual cycle and pregnancy?
It needs to retain its form to help keep the fetus in place during pregnancy
What is the name for childbirth?
Parturition
When does the cervix change shape?
During childbirth - it dilates
What is the cause of most cases of cervical cancer?
STDs (HPV: Human Papillomavirus)
What is the screening test for cervical cancer and how is it performed?
Pap smear - cells are scraped from external surface of uterus and examined for pathological changes
Name three functions of the vagina.
1. Passage of menstrual flow
2. Intercourse
3. Delivery of baby
What are the two sheets of muscle that fill in the inferior pelvic outlet and help to support the pelvic organs?
- Pelvic diaphragm
- Urogenital diaphragm
Which diaphragm do the vagina and urethra pass through in females?
Urogenital diaphragm
Which diaphragm does the anus pass through in females and males?
Pelvic diaphragm
Which diaphragm does the urethra pass through in males?
Urogenital diaphragm
What type of muscle forms the pelvic and urogenital diaphragms?
Skeletal
What are the functions of the pelvic and urogenital diaphragms?
Fills the pelvic outlet to support the pelvic organs
If the diaphragms do not properly contract, what can happen?
Incontinence
What type of exercises can be done to strengthen the diaphragm muscles?
Kegel exercises
The external genitalia are attached to what?
Urogenital diaphragm
What are the external genitalia in females called collectively?
Vulva
What are the folds of skin in the vulva that surround the openings of the urethra and vagina?
Labia majora and labia minora
What is the name of the erectile organ that is homologous to the penis in females?
Clitoris
What kind of glands are mammary glands?
Specialized sweat glands; exocrine
What do the lactiferous ducts of the mammary tissue converge to form?
Nipple
Growth of the breasts at puberty is due to what tissues growing?
Ducts and adipose tissue
Growth of the breasts during pregnancy is due to what?
Secretory portions of the glands grow