Anatomy 19 And End Of Class

Front 1

Stimuli are detected by receptors in our body. Two classes:

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1. General senses: receptors -- temperature, pain, touch, stretch, and pressure.
2. Special senses: gustation, olfaction, vision, equilibrium, and audition

Front 2

Three criteria used to describe receptors

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1. Stimulus origin
2. Receptor distribution
3. Modality of stimulus

Front 3

3 types of stimulus origin receptors:

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1. Exteroceptors
2. Interoceptors
3. Proprioceptors

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Exteroceptors

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Found in skin or mucous membranes such as nasal and oral cavities, vagina and anal canal.

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Interoceptors

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Found in the walls of viscera, detecting stretching, oxygen deprivation, temperature and pressure

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Proprioceptors

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found in muscles, tendons, and joints, detecting body and limb movement, muscles contraction and stretching and changes in capsule structure

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Somatic receptors

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found within the body wall. Include receptors for chemicals, temperature, pain, touch, proprioception and pressure

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Visceral receptors

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found within the walls of the viscera. Respond to chemicals, temperature, and pressure

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Special senses

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located only in the head such as gustation, olfaction, vision, equilibrum, and hearing

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Chemoreceptors

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detect specific molecules dissolved in fluid

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Thermoreceptors

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detect changes in temperature

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Photoreceptors

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detect changes in light intensity, color and movement of light

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Mechanoreceptors

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detect physical deformation due to touch, pressure, vibration, and stretch

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Baroreceptors

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detect pressure changes within body structures

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nociceptors

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detect tissue damage and pain

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Phantom pain

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sensation associated with part of the body that has been removed, usually an amputated limb
The sensory cell bodies from the limb remain alive as part of the dorsal spinal root and provides sensation to the CNS despite the removal of the limb.
Phantom limb syndrome.

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Referred pain

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Occurs when impulses from certain viscera such as the heart or appendix are perceived as originating not from the organ but in a dermatome of the skin.

Front 18

Tactile Receptors

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Most numerous type receptors
Mechanoreceptors respond to touch, pressure and vibration stimuli.
Located in dermis and subcutaneous layer of skin.

Front 19

Two types of Tactile receptors

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1. unencapsulated: endings not wrapped in connective tissue or glial cells
2. endings wrapped in connective tissue or glial cells

Front 20

Three types of Unencapsulated tactile receptors

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1. Free nerve endings: found in deep epidermis
2. Root hair complex: surrounds hair follicles in dermis
3. Tactile discs: located in the stratum basale of the epidermis

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4 types of encapsulated tactile receptors

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1. Krause bulbs: mucous membranes of oral and nasal cavities, vagina, and anal canal
2. Lamellated corpuscles: dermis, subcutaneous tissue, synovial membranes and some viscera
3. Ruffini corpuscles: dermis and subcutaneous layer
4. Tactile corpuscle: dermal papillae, especially lips, palms, eyelids, nipples and genitals

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Gustation

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the sense of taste

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Gustatory cells

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are taste receptors housed in specialized organs termed taste buds.
Taste buds are located on the dorsal surface of the tongue in elevated epithelial and connective tissues called papillae

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4 types of tongue papillae

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Filiform papillae: keep mouth clean
Fungiform papillae: most taste buds are
Vallate papillae: back tongue
Foliate papillae: side tongue

Front 25

Each taste bud is composed of numerous cells called ___________ which are enclosed in

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gustatory cells; supporting cells

Front 26

Each gustatory cell has a dendritic ending (free dendritic nerve ending) called a

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gustatory microvillus or taste hair
Taste molecules within the oral cavity activate the taste hairs

Front 27

Taste buds from the ANTERIOR 2/3rds of the tongue conduct gustatory information to the CNS through ? nerve

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The CN VII (facial)

Front 28

Taste buds from the POSTERIOR one-third of the tongue conduct gustatory information to the CNS through ? nerve?

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CN IX (glossopharyngeal)

Front 29

Inside the nasal cavity are paired olfactory organs consisting of several components. Olfactory epithelium consists of three different cell types:

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olfactory receptor cells
supporting cells
basal cells

Front 30

Olfactory nerves

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innervate at CN V (where we sense chemicals) and CN I

Front 31

At the apical end of the olfactory receptors cells are free nerve endings called ___________ that project through the mucous covering the olfactory epithelium

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olfactory hairs
These hairs contain receptors for airborne molecules

Front 32

Axons from bipolar neurons of the nasal mucosa pass through the foramina of the cribriform plate and enter the

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olfactory bulbs

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Projection neurons project axon bundles called __________ to the olfactory cortex of the temporal lobe

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olfactory tracts

Front 34

The receptors for vision reside in the

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eyes

Front 35

There are _______ of the eye that prevent foreign objects from coming in contact with the eye and insure that the surface of the eye remains clean and moist

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accessory structures

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Conjunctiva

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Stratified squamous epithelium that lines the anterior surface of the eye (but not the cornea) and the inner surface of the eyelid. It contains goblet cells to lubricate and moisten the eye. Keeps eye nourished.

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Eyebrows

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prevent sweat from dripping into the eye

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Eyelashes

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prevent large foreign objects from contacting the eyes

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Eyelids (palpebrae)

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movable anterior protective covering for the eye

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Tarsal Glands (Meibomian glands)

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located within both eyelids containing sebaceous glands to prevent tear overflow and the eyelids from sticking together

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Palpebral fissure

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the opening between the two eyelids

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Medial and lateral canthus

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where the eyelids unite at their medial and lateral borders

Front 43

Lacrimal caruncle

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small, reddish structure at the medial commissure that contains modified sweat glands. (sleep in eye in a.m.)
Contains modified sweat glands

Front 44

Lacrimal apparatus

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produces, collects, and drains lacrimal fluid (tears) from the eye
tears lubricate the anterior surface of the eye
Tears help to prevent bacterial infections because they contain an antibiotic-like enzyme called lysozyme

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Lacrimal puncta

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small "holes" in the caruncle

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Lacrimal canaliculus

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drains lacrimal fluid into lacrimal sac

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nasolacrimal duct

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receives tears from the lacrimal sac and drains the fluid into the nasal cavity

Front 48

3 principle layers form the wall of the eye

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fibrous tunic
vascular tunic
retina

Front 49

cataracts

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fibrous tissue breaking down and covering the cornea so it is no longer clear

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Fibrous Tunic's 2 parts:

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1. Cornea: transparent, avascular and receives oxygen and nutrients from lacrimal fluid and aqueous humor
2. Sclera: makes up the majority of the fibrous tunic. It is considered the "white" of the eye and allows for the attachment of the extrinsic eye muscles to the eye

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Vascular tunic composed of three regions

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Choroid
Ciliary body
Iris

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Choroid

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Largest area containing a vast network of capillaries which supply nutrients and oxygen to the retina

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Ciliary Body

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Composed of ciliary muscles and ciliary processes
Suspensory ligaments extend from the ciliary body and attach to the lens
When the ciliary muscles contract or relx, the shape of the lens changes to focus incoming light onto the retina

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Iris

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Pigmented part of the anterior eye
Inner margin of iris defines a black hole called the pupil that allows light to pass on to the retina

Front 55

Diameter of the pupil is determined by two sets of muscles

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1. sphincter pupillae muscles: concentric and controlled by the parasympathetic system, causing constriction of pupil
2. Dilator pupillae muscles: spoke-like muscles controlled by the sympathetic system, causing dilation of pupil

Front 56

Internal layer of the eye wall (Retina) comprised of two layers

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1. Pigmented layer: attached to the choroid. These cells absorb light energy that passes through the retina and provide photoreceptors with vitamin A.
2. Neural layer: houses the photoreceptors and other associated neurons

Front 57

Organization of the neural layer of the retina: (3 distinct layers)

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1. Photoreceptor layer: outermost layer comprised of rods (b&w) and cones (color)
2. Bipolar cells: synapse with photoreceptors and ganglion cells
3. Ganglion cells: innermost layer of the retina. Axons of these cells leave the retina and form the optic nerve (CN II)

Front 58

Optic disc.

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"Blind spot" on retina.
Located where ganglion cell axons exit retina to form optic nerve (CN II) and retinal arteries and veins enter and exit the retina.
Lacks photoreceptors

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Fovea Centralis

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Area of retina that contains the highest proportion of cones and almost no rods
Sharpest area of vision

Front 60

Lens is a transparent, deformable structure suspended behind the pupil by

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suspensory ligaments

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Suspensory ligaments

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attached to the outer capsule of the lens and when the ligaments are either relaxed or tense, it causes a change in the shape of the lens.
Tension is caused by the ciliary muscules of the ciliary body

Front 62

The internal space of the eye is subdivided by the lens into two cavities

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1. Anterior cavity: between the lens and the cornea
2. Posterior cavity: posterior to the lens and anterior to the retina

Front 63

Anterior eye cavity

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Filled with a watery filtrate of plasma called aqueous humor
Produced by the epithelium covering the ciliary body
Aqueous humor is drained into a vascular space called the scleral venous sinus (canal of Shlemm)

Front 64

Ganglion axons will enter an ______. Some will project to the ________ and the remainder will project to the _________ of the thalamus

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optic tract
Superior colliculi
lateral geniculate nucleus

Front 65

Neurons from the ________ will project to the visual cortex of the occipital lobe for visual interpretation of the incoming visual stimulus

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thalamus

Front 66

The ear is divided into three distinct anatomic regions

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1. External ear
2. Middle ear
3. Internal ear

Front 67

The auricle leads to a bony tube called the ____________. This structure ends at the ____________ (eardrum)

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external acoustic meatus
Tympanic membrane

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Deep within the external auditory meatus, glands produce a waxlike secretion called

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cerumen

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The middle ear is

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an air-filled cavity just medial to the tympanic membrane

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Auditory tube of middle ear connects to the

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nasopharynx

Front 71

Three auditory ossicles which are the smallest bones in the body. They are:

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1. Malleus (most external/lateral)
2. Incus
3. Stapes

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If fluid builds up in the ear what should you use? (Naturopathic)

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bitter orange oil

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Malleus (Hammer)

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attached to the tympanic membrane and articulates with the incus

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Incus (anvil)

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middle of the three bones articulates with the stapes

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Stapes (resembles a stirrup)

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its foot plate fits into the oval window on the lateral wall of the inner ear

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Inner ear location

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in spaces within the petrous portion of the temporal bone

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The spaces of the inner ear are called

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bony labyrinth

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Within the bony labyrinch are fluid-filled tibes and spaces called

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membranous labyrinth

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Receptors for equilibrium are stored within

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the sensory epithelium lining of the membranous labyrinth

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The space between the walls of the bony labyrinth and the membranous labyrinth is filled with a fluid similar to cerebral spinal fluid called

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perilymph. It supports and protects the membranous labyrinth.

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The membranous labyrinth contains a fluid called

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endolymph.

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Bony labyrinth partitioned into 3 distinct regions

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1. Vestibule
2. Semicircular canals
3. cochlea

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The vestibule and the semicircular canals compose a general area called the

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vestibular complex

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The vestibule contains two sac-like membranous labyrinth parts:

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1. Utricle
2. Saccule

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Within the semicircular canals, the membranous lanyrinth is called the

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semicircular ducts

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The cochlea houses a membranous labyrinth called the

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cochlear duct (scala media)

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The ____ of the vestibule are located along the internal walls of the utricle and saccule

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maculae

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_________ are sensory receptors for both equilibrium and hearing

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Hair cells

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On their apical surface, hair cells contain more than 50 stiff microvilli called ______ and one long cilium called a

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stereocilia;
kinocilium

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small calcium carbonate crystals covering the gelatinous mass holding the stereocilia and kinocilia

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otoliths

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Together, the otoliths and the gelatin layer form the

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otolithic membrane (statonic membrane)

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Semicircular canals

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continuous with the utricle
Anterior, posterior and lateral canals
Receptors within the semicircular ducts detect rotational movement of the head

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Within each of the three semicircular canals is an expanded region called the

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ampulla

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The ampulla contains an elevated region called the ______ _______ that is covered by an epithelium of hair cells and supporting cells

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crista ampullaris

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The sterocilia and kinocilia of the hair cells embed into an overlying gelatinous dome called the

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capula

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Vestibular axons project to ___________ in the superior medulla oblongata

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vestibular nuclei

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Impulses from the vestibular nuclei go to

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Spinal cord for muscle tone and balance
Brainstem for reflexive motor activities associated with eye movements and head and neck functions
Cerbellum, thalamus, and cerebral cortex

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The ____ is the organ of hearing

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cochlea

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The membranous labyrinth that runs through the cochlea

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cochlear duct (scala media) where majority of hearing happens

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The bony labyrinth surrounds the cochlear duct and is split into two chambers

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1. Scala vestibuli (superior)
2. Scala tympani (inferior)
(and medial...cochlear duct)

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The spiral organ is located & does what?

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within the cochlear duct and detects movement of the endolymph.
Consists of thick sensory epithelium including hair cells and supporting cells.

Front 102

The sterocilia of the hair cells project into an overlying gelatinous mass called

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the tectorial membrane

Front 103

Sensory axons of the cochlear nerve terminate in the __________ within the brainstem and synapse with secondary neurons within this nucleus

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cochlear nuclei