Anatomy 1 Chris Rich

Front 1

Metabolism

Back 1

Sum of all internal chemical changes and consists of anabolism, or synthesis reactions, and catabolism, or breakdown reactions

Front 2

Excretion

Back 2

Required to remove the waste molecules produced by metabolism

Front 3

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

Back 3

Rate of metabolism of a resting, non-reproducing, postabsorptive mammal in its thermoneutral zone

Front 4

Negative Feedback

Back 4

Body senses a change and activates mechanisms to reverse it

Front 5

Three Components of a Feedback Loop

Back 5

Receptor

Integrating (Control) Center

Effector

Front 6

Positive Feedback

Back 6

Leads to greater change in the same direction

Front 7

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen

Back 7

Elements (of essential 24) that aren't minerals

Front 8

Calcium and Phosphorus

Back 8

Nearly 3/4 of the mineral mass in body

Front 9

Phosphorus and Sulfur

Back 9

Major components of nucleic acids, ATP and cell membranes

Front 10

Electrolytes

Back 10

Mineral salts are needed for nerve and muscle function (Na+, K+ and Cl-)

Front 11

NOTE

Back 11

Further away the shell, the more energy there is

Front 12

Isotopes

Back 12

Varieties of an element that differ in the number of neutrons and therefore in atomic mass

Front 13

Ions

Back 13

Charged particles with unequal number of protons and electrons

Front 14

NOTE

Back 14

Ions of opposite charge tend to follow each other throughout the body

Front 15

NOTE

Back 15

Electrolyte importance:

Chemical reactivity

Osmotic effects (influence water movement)

Electrical effects on nerve and muscle tissue

Front 16

Free Radicals

Back 16

Chemical particles with an odd number of electrons

Front 17

Antioxidants

Back 17

Neutralize free radicals

Front 18

NOTE

Back 18

Free radicals have short lives because they are unstable and readily combine with other molecules, creating free-radical chain reactions that destroy molecules which causes cancer, death of heart tissue and premature aging

Front 19

Covalent Bond

Back 19

Most "relevant" chemical bond

Front 20

Hydrogen bonds

Back 20

Weak bond

Strongest intermolecular bond

Front 21

Ionic Bond

Back 21

Relatively weak because it often easily dissociates in water

Front 22

Nonpolar Covalent Bond

Back 22

Shared electrons spend approximately equal time around each nucleus

Stronger covalent bond

Any diatom will have this bond

Front 23

Van der Waal Forces

Back 23

Weak, brief attractions between neutral atoms

Important for proteins

Front 24

Mixtures

Back 24

Substances that are physically blended, but not chemically combined

Front 25

Adhesion

Back 25

Tendency of one substance to stick to another

Front 26

Cohesion

Back 26

Tendency of molecules of same substance to stick to each other (intermolecular connections)

Front 27

Blood

Back 27

Example of Solution, Colloid and Suspension

Front 28

Solution

Back 28

Consists of particles of matter called a solute mixed with a more abundant substance, usually water, called a solvent

Solute does NOT separate from solvent

Front 29

Colloid

Back 29

Mixture of larger particles in a solvent, such as albumin in blood plasma

Particles are too large to pass through selectively permeable membranes

Solute does NOT separate from solvent

Front 30

Suspension

Back 30

Large particles mixed in a solvent, such as red blood cells in blood plasma

Particles are too large to pass through selectively permeable membranes

Solute DOES separate from solvent

Front 31

Free Energy

Back 31

Potential energy available in a system to do work

Front 32

NOTE

Back 32

The most relevant free energy in physiological systems is stored in chemical bonds

Front 33

Electromagnetic Energy

Back 33

The kinetic energy of moving ‘packets’ of radiation called photons

Front 34

Hydroxyl

Back 34

Sugars

Alcohol

Front 35

Methyl

Back 35

Fats

Oils

Steroids

Amino Acids

Front 36

Carboxyl

Back 36

Amino Acids

Sugars

Proteins

Front 37

Amino

Back 37

Amino Acids

Proteins

Front 38

Phosphate

Back 38

Nucleic Acids

ATP

Front 39

Glycoprotein

Back 39

Conjugated carb - covalently bound to protein

Forms mucus

Front 40

Glycolipid

Back 40

Conjugated carb - covalently bound to lipid

Front 41

Glycogen

Back 41

Energy storage polysaccharide in animals

Made by liver (and etc.) to lower blood sugar levels

Front 42

NOTE

Back 42

Lipids are less oxidized than carbohydrates, and thus has more calories/gram

Front 43

Fatty Acid

Back 43

Monomer

Essential ones found in diet

Front 44

Triglyceride

Back 44

Neutral fat

Polymer

Covalently bound to 3-C alcohol

Liquid = oil

Solid = fat

Front 45

Phospholipid

Back 45

Polymer

Structural components of cell membranes

Front 46

Steroid

Back 46

Lipid with its carbon atoms arranged in four rings

Front 47

NOTE

Back 47

Glucouse - Pyruvic Acid

Pyruvic Acid - Lactic Acid (Anaerobic fermentation)

Pyruvic Acid - Cell (Aerobic)

Front 48

NOTE

Back 48

Glucose Oxidation is exergonic

Front 49

NOTE

Back 49

Phosphorylation is endergonic

Front 50

cAMP

Back 50

Second messenger

Activates metabolic effects inside cell

Front 51

NOTE

Back 51

Amino acid is central carbon with 3 attachments: amino group (NH2), carboxyl group (COOH) and radical group (R group)

Front 52

NOTE

Back 52

Amino Acids ONLY differ in R group

Front 53

Peptide

Back 53

Any molecule composed of two or more amino acids joined by peptide bonds

Front 54

Peptide Bond

Back 54

Joins the amino group of one amino acid to the carboxyl group of the next

Front 55

NOTE

Back 55

Primary - Peptide Bonds

Secondary - Hydrogen Bonds

Tertiary - R-Group interactions

Quaternary - Ionic Bonds

Front 56

Ligand

Back 56

A molecule that will reversibly bind to any protein

It's not changed

Front 57

NOTE

Back 57

Membrane Proteins:

Phospholipids

Cholesterol - stiffens membrane

Glycolipids - carbohydrate coating

Front 58

NOTE

Back 58

Charged (ex: electrolytes), hydrophilic solutes or polar substances only diffuse through channel proteins or across via carrier proteins in membrane because they cannot pass through the hydrophobic inner layer of the membrane

Front 59

NOTE

Back 59

One osmole is 1 mole of dissolved particles

1M NaCl = 2 osmole

Front 60

NOTE

Back 60

ICF = 300 mOsm/L

Front 61

NOTE

Back 61

The concentration of non-penetrating solutes in solution, not the total osmolarity, determines the tonicity of the solution

Front 62

Microvilli

Back 62

Increases surface area

Brush border

Absorption

Front 63

Cilia

Back 63

Hair-like process on almost every cell

Sensory and movement

Front 64

Columnar and cuboidal

Back 64

Absorption and secretion

Front 65

Fusiform

Back 65

Smooth muscle cells

Front 66

Fibrous

Back 66

Skeletal and muscle fibers

Front 67

Stellate

Back 67

Nerve cells

Front 68

Smooth ER

Back 68

Synthesizes lipids/steroids, detoxifies drugs/alcohol and makes cell membranes

Front 69

Rough ER

Back 69

Produces the phospholipids and proteins of the plasma membrane

Synthesizes proteins

Front 70

Matrix of Mitochondria

Back 70

Spaces between cristae (inside foldings)

Contains ribosomes, enzymes used for ATP synthesis, and mitochondrial DNA

Where Krebs cycle (glucose oxidation) occurs

Front 71

NOTE

Back 71

Four Tissue Groups:

Epithelial

Connective

Nervous

Muscular

Front 72

Ground Substance OR Interstitial Fluid

Back 72

Fibrous proteins and clear gel that makes up the matrix

Contains water, minerals, gasses, nutrients, wastes and compounds

Front 73

NOTE

Back 73

3 Primary Germ Layers:

Ectoderm (outer) - Gives rise to epidermis and nervous system

Endoderm (inner) - Gives rise to mucous membrane lining

Mesoderm (middle) - Gives rise to muscle, bone, blood tissue

Front 74

Simple Squamous

Back 74

Permits rapid diffusion or transport of substances

Secretes serous fluid

Front 75

Simple Cuboidal

Back 75

Absorption and secretion, mucus production and movement

Front 76

Simple Columnar

Back 76

Brush border of microvilli

Mucus secretion; absorption and secretion

Front 77

Connective

Back 77

Most abundant and diverse tissue group

Front 78

Adipocytes

Back 78

Store triglycerides

Scattered in fibrous connective tissue

Grouped together (adipose tissue) in different connective tissue

Front 79

Reticular

Back 79

Loose connective tissue

Forms structural framework in some organs

Front 80

Areolar

Back 80

Loose connective tissue

Found in nearly every tissue section of body

Epithelium rests on a layer of it

Front 81

Dense Connective Tissue

Back 81

Fibers occupies more of the space than the cells and ground substance in matrix

Forms a sheath around bones, nerves and cartilage

Front 82

NOTE

Back 82

All cells (except blood and metastatic cancer cells) are anchored to each other or their matrix by intercellular junctions

Front 83

Tight Junction

Back 83

Binding of adjacent membranes

Front 84

Desmosome

Back 84

Patch that holds cells together

Do NOT prevent substances from passing between cells

Front 85

Gap Junctions

Back 85

Consists of six transmembrane proteins arranged in a ring-like segments

Creates water-filled pores

Ions, glucose, amino acids and other solutes pass from cell to cell

Front 86

Exocrine Glands

Back 86

Has ducts

Contacts body surface

Substances expelled from body

Front 87

Endocrine Glands

Back 87

Has no ducts

Does not contact body surface

Substances used within the body

Front 88

Cutaneous Membrane

Back 88

Skin

Front 89

Serous Membrane

Back 89

Covers internal organs

Made of simple squamous epithelium

Front 90

NOTE

Back 90

Two layers of Skin:

Epidermis - stratified squamous epithelium

Dermis - connective tissue layer

Front 91

Thick Skin

Back 91

Sweat glands

No hair follicles

No sebaceous (oil) glands

Front 92

Thin Skin

Back 92

Sweat glands

Hair follicles

Sebaceous (oil) glands

Front 93

NOTE

Back 93

Keratinocytes function inthe epidermal waterproof barrier

Front 94

Articular Cartilage

Back 94

A layer of hyaline cartilage which covers the joint surface where two bones meet, which enables a joint to move easily or freely

Front 95

Periosteum

Back 95

External sheath that covers bone

Front 96

Endosteum

Back 96

Thin layer of reticular connective tissue lining marrow cavity

Front 97

Epiphyseal Plate (Growth Plate)

Back 97

Area of hyaline cartilage that separates the marrow spaces of the epiphysis and diaphysis

Front 98

Osteoblast

Back 98

Bone forming cells

Do not undergo mitosis

Secretes osteocalcin (bone protein)

Front 99

Osteoclast

Back 99

Bone dissolving cells

Front 100

Mineral Deposition

Back 100

Osteoblasts lay down collagen fibers

Calcium and phosphate from blood create crystals on those fibers

Those crystals attract more crystals until it's calcified

Osteoblast stop any inhibitors of mineralization

Front 101

Mineral Resorption

Back 101

Osteoclasts break down bone and release contents to the blood

Occurs at ruffled border

Front 102

Calcitriol

Back 102

Hormone that raises blood calcium concentration

Binds to receptors on osteoblasts
Promotes calcium reabsorption by the kidneys

Front 103

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

Back 103

Hormone that raises blood calcium concentration

Binds to receptors on osteoblasts

Promotes calcium reabsorption by the kidneys

Increases phosphate excretion

Front 104

Calcitonin

Back 104

Hormone that lowers blood calcium concentrations

Makes osteoblast less active and osteoclasts more active

Front 105

NOTE

Back 105

4 Main Joint Categories:

Bony joints

Fibrous joints

Cartilaginous joints

Synovial joints

Front 106

Fibrous Joints

Back 106

Adjacent bones are connected by collagen fibers

Can ossify

Front 107

Cartilaginous Joint

Back 107

Two bones are connected by cartilage

Can ossify

Joins epiphyses and diaphyses until young adulthood

Front 108

Bony Joint

Back 108

An immovable joint formed when the gap between two bones ossify and become a single bone

Front 109

Synovial Joint

Back 109

Two bones are separated by a space called a joint cavity

Most structurally complex type of joint

Front 110

NOTE

Back 110

A single lever cannot simultaneously both move an object faster and exert more output force on the same object

Front 111

NOTE

Back 111

Mechanical Advantage:

L(effort)/L(resistance)

If R arm is shorter, more force less speed

If E arm is short, less force more speed

Front 112

NOTE

Back 112

4 Connective Tissue of Muscles:

Endomysium

Perimysium

Epimysium

Fascia

Front 113

Indirect Attachment

Back 113

Tendons connect collagen fibers of muscles to periosteum of bone

Front 114

Direct Attachment

Back 114

Collagen fibers connect muscles to bone

Front 115

NOTE

Back 115

Most muscle repair is by replacement of damaged muscle tissue by fibrous scar tissue (fibrosis), rather than regeneration of new muscle

Front 116

Terminal Cisternae

Back 116

Dilated end-sacs of SR which cross muscle fiber from one side to the other

Front 117

Transverse Tubules

Back 117

Tubular infoldings of the sarcolemma which penetrate through the cell and emerge on the other side

Signals SR to release calcium in large bursts

Front 118

Thick Myofilaments

Back 118

Has myosin heads

Front 119

Thin Myofilaments

Back 119

Has G actin with active sites that can bind to myosin heads

Has tropomyosin which cover active sites in a relaxed muscle

Has troponin on tropomyosin which bind to calcium

Front 120

Titin

Back 120

Anchors thick myofilaments to Z disc

Front 121

Astrocytes

Back 121

Most abundant glial cell in CNS

Most of tissue in brain

Blood brain barrier

Promote neuron growth

Front 122

Schwann Cells

Back 122

PNS

Produce myelin sheath

Front 123

NOTE

Back 123

Outer to Inner:

Endoneurium

Basal Lamina

Neurilemma

Schwann Cell

Front 124

Myelin Sheath

Back 124

Schwann Cell (PNS)

Oligodendrocytes (CNS)