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85 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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The axial skeleton comprises of which Skeletal appendages?
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Skull, vertebral column, ribs and sternum
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The appendicular skeleton comprises of which skeletal appendages?
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Limbs and Limb girdles
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What are the main (general) functions of the skeletal system?
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- Support of Body and muscles- protection of visceral organs- Aids of movement- Blood formation in bone marrow- Salt and mineral storage- Removal of toxic heavy metals
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The main feature of a pneumatic bone is what?Where can pneumatic bones be found in the body?
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Pneumatic bones hold airThey can be found in the paranasal sinuses (nose)
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What is the main feature of a sesamoid bone and where can Tim O'shea find them?
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Sesamoid bones are small accessory bones embedded in tendons. Tim can find them in the patella, hand, wrist and foot.
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Are there more bones in adults or children? Why
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Child, as there are more bones yet to fuse
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What is the function of an osteoclast?
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Bone dissolving cells which are responsible for bone reabsorption and ongoing bone re-modelling
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What is the function of an osteoblast?
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Osteoblasts are bone synthesizing/producing cells
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What percentage of the extracellular matrix in bones is inorganic? What is their purpose?
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2/3rds of the extracellular matrix in bones is inorganic (mainly calcium phosphate). It's purpose generally is to resist compression
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What percentage of the extracellular matrix in bones is organic? What is its purpose?
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1/3rd of the extracellular matrix in bones is organic (mainly collagen). It's purpose is to resist bone tension.
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In long bones, the outer fibrous (collagen-based) covering is called the what?
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Periosteum
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Compact bone in long bones is a highly dense which accounts for what percentage of the bones weight?
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75% of the bone weight in long bones is due to compact bone
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In long bones, spongy bone is made of what structure? Describe its features
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The spongy bone is made up of trabeculae, which is a lattice network of bony matric
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The diaphysis and epiphysis are found in which relative areas of a long bone
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the diaphysis is more central to the nutrient foramen, whereas the epiphysis appears towards the ends of the long bone.
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The epiphyseal plate is comprised of what cartilage and where is it located?
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The epiphyseal plate is comprised of hyaline cartilage and is located in the metaphysis of each bone end
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The Nutrient foramen allows the entry of which vessel?
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Nutrient vessel
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In long bones the Endosteum is a thin layer of connective tissue which lines which cavity?What two cell types can be found here?
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The endosteum lines the medullary cavity. Yellow and red bone marrow can be found here.
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What is the function of red marrow?
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generates red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets
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What is the function of yellow marrow?
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Production of fat, cartilage and bone. Yellow marrow can also revert to red marrow during instances like fractures.
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Identify structures A-E in the flat bone shown
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A = SutureB = Outer compact boneC = Spongy bony boneD = TrabelculaeE = Inner compact bone
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Bone Properties: Bones which are good at resisting static forces are called what?
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Trabecular bones are good at resisting static forces
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Bone properties: Bones which are good at resisting dynamic forces (e.g. bending) are called what?
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Cortical bones are good are resisting dynamic forces
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Does cartilage contain nerves, blood supply or lymph tissue? Is there an exception to this general rule?
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Cartilage is aneural, avascular an contains no lymph. The exception is fibro cartilage
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What are the 3 types of Cartilage?
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Cartilage types: hyaline, fibro, elastic
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Where is hyaline cartilage found and what is it comprised of?
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Hyaline is found in the articular surfaces where bones join and is comprised of parallel collagen fibres
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Where is Fibro cartilage found?
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Fibro cartilage is found in discs, meniscus, labrum.
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Where is Elastic cartilage found and what is it comprised of?
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Comprised of elastic collagen fibres and is found in structures like: external ear, larynx - all change shape.
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A ball and socket joint, such as the shoulder, may include a labrum. Where would you find this labrum?
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You would find the labrum as a ring of fibro cartilage around the circumference of the socket enabling the socket to become deeper.
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In what types of bones does intramembranous ossification occur? What is its precursor?
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Intramembranous ossification occurs in flat bones of the skull, clavicle and mandible. It's precursor is fibrous cartilage
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Outline the 4 generalised steps of Intramembranous ossification?
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1. Mesenchyme differentiate + condense into a soft tissue at the ossification centre2. Osteoblasts gather on the trabeculae to secrete osteoid tissue3. Osteoclasts remodel the centre to contain narrow spaces and osteoblasts remodel the surface --> compact bone. 4. Mesenchyme gives rise to the periosteum.
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In what type of bones does endochronal ossification occur? What is its precursor
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Long bones and most other bones. Its precursor is hyaline cartilage
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Outline the 4 generalised steps that occur during endochronal ossification in the primary centre.
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1) Bone first appears in the middle of the shaft2) Cartilage progressively replaces by the bone, extending towards the epiphyses3) A nutrient artery penetrates into the bone increasing nutrient availability to the cells. 4) Bone simultaneously formed in periosteal and endosteal layers to remodel the medullary cavity, which fills the capillary with red bone marrow.
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What is the role of the nutrient artery in long bones and how does it enter the bone?
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The role is to bring osteogenic cells and supply the long bone with an artery. The nutrient artery enters through the nutrient foramen.
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In the developing long bone, where would you find:1) Diaphysis2) Metaphysis3) Epiphysis
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Diaphysis = innermostMetaphysis = MiddleEpiphysis = outer
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In regards to the ossification of secondary centres, where do they appear? How do they operate?
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Secondary ossification centres are found in the epiphysis on long bones. They operate by depositing osteoblasts which erode the cartilage and form bone.
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When the bone has fully developed, the epiphyseal growth plate leaves only what type of cartilage?
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Articular cartilage.
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What is the clinical significance of the epiphysis?
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Indicates wether or not a bone is still growing. Provides good indication of skeletal age.
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Achrondroplastic dwarfism is:1) Caused by what?2) Results in?
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a) Caused by spontaneous mutation in DNAb) Long bones of the limbs stop growing, but other bones unaffected.
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The four types of arteries supplying the long bone are? Are anastomoses present in bones?
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1) Nutrient artery (provides osteoblasts)2) Periosteal3) Metaphyseal4) EpiphysealYes anastomoses are present in long bones.
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Bone Fractures:Compound vs simple?
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Compound = bone is breaking through the skinSimple = bone has not pierced the skin
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Where does fertilisation occur?
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Fallopian Tubes
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In early human development, the 16 cell stage (3 days) is called the:
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Morula
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At 4 days the cell mass is referred to as the what?
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Blastocyst
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The outer epithelial layer of the blastocyst is called the what?What will this layer form during development
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The outer epithelial layer of the blastocyst is called the Trophoblast.The trophoblast will for extraembryonic structures (part of placenta)
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The inner cell mass of the Blastocoele splits into what two structures?
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Epiblast and Hypoblast
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What key structure of development arises from the epiblast in the two germ layer stage development?Which structure arises from the hypoblast and how does this occur?
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The epiblast gives rise to the amniotic cavity. The hypoblast gives rise to the yolk sac and does so by extending and aligning around the inner edge of the trophoblast to form an enclosed sac.
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The process of forming 3 germ layers from 2 is referred to as what?
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Gastrulation
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During Gastrulation, the primitive streak invaginates to form the what?
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Primitive groove
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During gastrulation, outline the processes in which cells form the '3 layers'
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1) Cells fold inwards and migrate into space between epiblast (amnion) and hypoblast (yolk sac). 2) Cells from the epiblast form on top of the hypoblast and form the endoderm3) Another layer forms in a similar process, resting upon the embryonic endoderm and this later is called the embryonic mesoderm4) Cells remaining in the epiblast (amnion) become the embryonic ectoderm
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Outline how the primitive groove forms the notochord. Indicate which direction (caudal or rostral) this retracts.
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Primitive groove lengthens and retracts caudally (travels rostral --> caudally). As it retracts it lays down notochord in the mesoderm. Cells move through the primitive node and migrate down from the ectoderm
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How many days into development is the primitive streak nearly gone and retracted?Is the neural plate and fold evident at this stage?
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at 21 days the primitive streak has retracted and nearly gone. The neural plate and fold are evident at this stage
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IF the primitive streak does not disappear what condition can occur? Is it a malignant or benign abnormality?
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Teratomas are the result of primitive streak retention. Its a benign tumor easily corrected by surgery.
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Describe the derivatives of the three tissue types:1) Ectoderm2) Mesoderm3) Endoderm
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1) Nervous system and epidermis2) Blood, heart, kidneys, gonads and most bones, muscles and connective tissues3) Epithelium of gut and associated organs
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From the neural plate, outline how the neural tube is formed (ie Neurulation)
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1) Notochord induces overlying ectoderm to form neural plate2) Neural plate forms neural groove3) Neural plate fold around neral groove to form neural tube
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In which direction does the neural tube form?
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rostral --> caudal
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What were the two spinal development disorders for neural fold closure?
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Spina bifida and Anencephaly
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Which end of the neural tube swells during development?
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Rostral end
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What at the three (initial) distinct vesicles formed during segmentation of the neural tube?
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Prosencephalon (forebrain)mesencephalon (midbrain)Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
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1) During further segmentation of the neural tube (past 3 vesicle stage) which vesicle undergoes further segmentation. For each of the segments it splits into describe their name and what they essentially become.
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The Prosencephalon splits into the telencephalon and the diencephalon. The telencephalon becomes the cerebral cortex The diencephalon becomes the thalamus/hypothalamus
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How many segments does the Rhombencephalon split into?
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the Rhombencephalon splits into 7 segments
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Where do the cells of the neural crest originate from?What type of cells are these and what do they develop into?
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The cells of the neural crest originate from the top of the neural tube. Neural crest cells are embryonic and become peripheral-sensory nerves.
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What are the three types of joints?
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1) Fibrous2) Cartilaginous3) Synovial
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1) What characterises the fibrous joints?2) What are the 3 types of fibrous joints and where are they found?
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1) Fibrous joints are held together by fibrous tissue2) Three types of fibrous joints are:- Suture: between skull bones- Syndesmosis: tissues between long bones (e.g. tibia and fibula- Gomphosis: holds tooth in socket by periodontal ligament
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1) What characterises the cartilaginous joints?2) What are the two types of cartilaginous joints?
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1) Joints are held together by cartilage2) Primary and Secondary cartilaginous joints
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Where would you find primary cartilaginous joints? Do they remain after development? Name an example.
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Primary cartilaginous joints are found in the hyaline between bones. they disappear during development and an example is the epiphyseal plate.
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Where would you find a secondary cartilaginous joint? Describe their structure and name an example.
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Secondary cartilaginous joints are found within the midline. They are comprised of a wedge of fibrocartilage between layers of hyaline cartilage. Example is the intervertebral discs
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Shown is a standard synovial joint. Label the structures 1-5
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1. Periosteum2. Fibrous Capsule3. Articular Cartilage4. Synovial membrane5. Synovial cavity/fluid
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In relation to the axis of movement, what are the three types of synovial joints and give an example of each.
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1. uniaxial - Plane, hinge and pivot joints2. biaxial - condylar, saddle (thumb)3. Multiaxial - Ball and socket joint
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What are the differences/features of the following synovial joints:a. Simpleb. Compoundc. Complex
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a. Simple synovial = one pair of articular surfaces (most synovial joints)b. compound = more than two articular surfaces (elbow and knee)c. Complex = Joint cavity subdivided into >1 joitn compartment by either: - Fibrocartilaginous disc - incomplete menisci (these allow separate movements and maintain stability)
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Does the articular cartilage in the synovial joint contain nerves or vascular components?
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No. the articular cartilage is aneural and avascular.
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Where does the fibrous capsule usually attach to the bone?
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At the site of epiphyseal plate
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Does the fibrous capsule receive a sensory nerve supply? Does it have good or poor blood supply?
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The fibrous capsule has:rich sensory nerve supplyand has poor blood supply
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Is the synovial membrane vascular?What function does the synovial membrane serve?
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The synovial membrane:is highly vascularsecretes synovial fluid into the synovial cavity
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What is the function of the synovial fluid?
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synovial fluid acts as:a lubricant for the jointnutrient source for underlying cartilage
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What is an effusion injury to the synovial membrane?
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effusion: excess synovial fluid in the cavity due to irritation
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What is Haemarthrosis is relation to the synovial membrane? (injury)
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Haemarthrosis: Bleeding into joint cavity through tear of synovial membrane
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What is septic arthritis in relation to synovial membrane injury?
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Septic arthritis: Microorganisms in joint cavity through penetration injury. danger of permanent damage.
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What are ligaments composed of? What are they designed to do?
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Ligaments comprised of collagenLigaments designed to resist tensile forces
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What are the three types of ligaments and what do they do?
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Intrinsic ligaments - reinforce the capsuleextrinsic ligaments - separate from capsuleaccessory Ligaments - located at a distance from the joint
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What are the three grades of ligament injury?
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type 1: Minimal disruptiontype 2: up to 50% disruptiontype 3: complete rupture
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What is an avulsion injury?
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When the bone structure is forcibly detached from its normal point of insertion
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Which ligaments are particularly prone to injury?
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lateral ligaments in the ankle -> in 3 separate bands.
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Describe the structure of the Labrum.
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Labrum:fibrocartilaginous rim which deepens socket (e.g. ball and socket)Is avascular (except outer 1/3rd)- Receives nutrition from synovial fluid
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Do discs and menisci receive blood and nerve supply?
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Yes - however only in the outer third/periphery. (a common site for injury).
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The Intracapsular tendon involved the head of which muscle? Is the Intracapsular tendon covered by synovial membrane?
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Long head of biceps.yes, has a synovial membrane.
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