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189 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Skeletal muscle % of body weight?
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40%
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Smooth and cardiac muscle % of body weight?
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10%
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Skeletal muscle and locomotion
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Movement results from contraction of skeletal muscles
Contraction results in flexion or extension of joint Muscle is attached to bone by tendons Has points of origin and insertion |
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Skeletal Muscle Fiber Structure
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10-80 um in diameter
Multinucleated Multiple mitochondria and organelles Contains myofibrils |
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Sarcolemma
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Outer limiting membrane
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Myofibril- made of?
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Sarcomere
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Sacromere
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basic contractile unit of the muscle fiber
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Satellite cells
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Progenitor cells for muscle cells
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5 Sarcomere proteins
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Actin
Tropomyosin Troponin Myosin Titin |
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Actin Filament
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Attached to Z disc
Each filament has two F actin proteins and two tropomyosin helix Troponin on tropomyosin |
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Troponin
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Globular protein
High affinity for calcium ion |
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Myosin Filament
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filament is made of >200 myosin molecules
2 heavy chain polypeptides- wrap around each other to form double helix 4 light chain polypeptides |
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Titin
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Maintains side by side relationship of actin and myosin filaments
One of largest protein molecules in the body, MW=3 million Springy act as framework that lines up actin and myosin filaments |
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Z disc composition
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Filamentous protein
Attach myofibril to one another |
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Transverse tubule system
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Present in skeletal and cardiac muscle
Carries action potential to the interior of the muscle fiber |
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Cardiac muscle
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Cells are shorter than skeletal muscles
Cells connected by intercalated disks Action potential spread faster due to syncytium Gap junctions |
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Smooth muscle
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No striated arrangement of actin and myosin
Cells are smaller and shorter than skeletal muscle NO transverse tubules |
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Neuromuscular Synapse
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Specialized junction where a motor neuron comes into close apposition with a skeletal muscle cell
Unidirectional communication between motor neuron and muscle cells |
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Energy Sources for Muscle Contraction
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Stored ATP and phosphocreatine
Muscle glycogen breakdown (glycogenolysis) Oxidative metabolism |
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Muscle glycogen breakdown (glycogenolysis)
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Produce ATP rapidly
No oxygen Accumulation of end products Cannot support contraction for long time |
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Oxidative metabolism
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Requires oxygen
Requires extensive blood supply Supports extremely long-term maximal muscle activity |
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Fast Twitch
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Type 2
Large- great strength Rapid contraction Low endurance Extensive SR Lots glycolytic enzymes Less extensive blood supply Fewer mitochondria White muscle Breast muscle of chicken and turkey |
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Slow Twitch
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Type 1
Small Slow contraction Extensive blood supply More mitochondria Myoglobin, the red pigment Red muscle Migrating bird flight muscle, mammal limbs |
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Disorders affecting neuromuscular junction
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Myasthenia gravis
Hypocalcemia Hypomagnesemia Toxins-tetanus |
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Disorders affecting muscle fibers
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Vitamin E deficiency
Selenium deficiency Hypothyroidism |
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Functions of Cardiovascular System
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Provide blood gases, electrolytes, and nutrients
Removal of metabolic products from tissues Carry chemical messengers-hormones and enzymes Regulation of water balance Assist in thermoregulation |
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Systems that support metabolism of complex organisms
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Cardiovascular System
Pulmonary System Renal System |
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Perfusion pressure
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Pressure difference along the length of a blood vessel
Driving force for blood flow through the vessel |
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Transmural (distending) pressure
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Pressure difference across the wall of the vessel
Driving force that causes blood to flow out of vessel if there was a hole in it |
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Diffusion of materials from blood
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blood vessels to interstitial tissue to cells
- occurs in capillary vessels - cell must be within 100 um of blood - driven by concentration differences - affected by permeability of membranes |
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Diffusion of materials from blood- Active transport mechanisms are absent in ____???
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vascular system
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Atrio-ventricular valves
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Mitral
Tricuspid |
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Semilunar valves
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Aortic
Pulmonary |
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Myocardium
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Cells are shorter than skeletal muscles
Cells connected by intercalated disks Gap junctions- desmosomes Syncytium- acts like same cells 25-30% of cell mass is mitochondria |
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Cardiac Action Potential and its Conduction System
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Self generating- nervous induction not necessary, denervated heart can still beat
Conducted cell to cell Similar to action potential in skeletal muscle with ionic base Travel through unique conduction system |
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Cardiac action potential are _____________ than skeletal muscles?
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longer
Cardiac 100-250 milliseconds Skeletal 1-2 milliseconds |
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Prolonged phase of depolarization in cardiac muscle is called?
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Plateau of the action potenital
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Autonomic- Sympathetic Nervous systems effect on SA node
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Acts on SA node pacemaker cells to increase heart rate
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Autonomic- Sympathetic Nervous systems effect on AV node
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Acts on AV node to increase conduction velocity
Shorten AV delay |
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Autonomic- Sympathetic Nervous system effect on all Cardiac Cells
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Shorten refractory period
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Autonomic- Sympathetic Nervous system effect on cardiac contraction
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Make stronger and quicker
Pump more blood at higher pressure |
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Autonomic- Parasympathetic Nervous System effects.....
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Opposite to sympathetic stimulation
Restricted to SA node, AV node, and atria |
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Late Diastole
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Chambers are relaxed
Ventricles fill passively |
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Atrial systole
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Atrial contraction forces a small amount of additional blood into ventricles
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Isovolumic ventricular contraction
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First phase of ventricular contraction pushes AV valves closed
Does not create enough pressure to open semilunar valves |
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Ventricular ejection
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Venticular pressure rises and exceeds pressure rises and exceeds pressure in the arteries
Sumilunar valves open and blood is ejected |
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Isovolumic ventricular relaxation
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Ventricles relax and pressure in ventricles falls
Blood flows back into cups of semilunar valves and snaps them closed |
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Cardiac Output
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heart rate x stroke volume
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Stroke volume
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End diastolic volume - End systolic volume
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Plasma is how many percent of Blood?
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55%
water protein (gives yellow color) electrolytes dissolved gases nutrients waste products hormones |
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Cells is how many percent of Blood?
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45%
Red blood cells Platelets |
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Fraction of cells in blood is called?
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Hematocrit
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Blood flow in veins aided by...
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Skeletal muscle contractions
Pressure changes in thorax during breathing |
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What regulates blood vessel constriction/dilatation?
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Adrenergic receptors (alpha, beta) on vascular smooth muscle
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Capillary Exchange Mechanism- Diffusion
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Along a concentration gradient
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Capillary Exchange Mechanism- Movement across endothelial cells
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Lipid soluble
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Capillary Exchange Mechanism- Movement between adjacent cells
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Lipid soluble
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Hyperemia- Active
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Tissue demand for nutrients
Increased CO2, H+, K+, adenosine Decreased O2 Relaxes terminal arterioles permitting more blood flow through capillary bed |
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Hyperemia- Reactive
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Histamine, kinins, prostaglandins, serotonin,
Physicals effects due to UV light and temperature |
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Lymphatic system- structural similar to???
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Veins
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Lymphatic system- begins from???
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Extracellular space
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Lymphatic system- flow ends in??
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Venous blood near right atrium
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Lymphatic system- flows through?
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Lymph nodes
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Annual
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Circannual
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Daily
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Circadian
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Why should we consider clocks?
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Found in all living organisms
Observed in most organs Influence all behavior or Physiological Process |
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3 Roles for biological clocks
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Solar orientation and navigation
Photoperiodism Sleep/wakefulness |
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Zeitgeber
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German for time giver
Can reset circadian rhythms |
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Circadian photoreceptor
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Melanopsin
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Any photoreceptor class can mediate...?
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Entrainment
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Entrainment system is redundant from....?
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irradiance detection standpoint
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Circannual rhythms are...?
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Innate
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Circannual rhythms are shaped by...?
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Photoperiod
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Avian MBH
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contains fully functional circadian clock
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Avian Photoperiodism- Long day stimulus induces...
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TSH expression in the PT of pituitary gland
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Avian Photoperiodism- PT TSH acts on...
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TSH receptor in ependymal cells to induce expression of DIO2
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Avian Photoperiodism- DIO2 makes...
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T3 which triggers neuroendocrine pathway stimulating gonadotropin secretion and gonadal growth
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What reflects the amount of light and dark?
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Amplitude and
Phase of Melatonin Signal |
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Melatonin is the biochemical equivalent of....?
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Night
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Melatonin does what in short day breeders?
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Cause gonadal growth
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Melatonin does what in long day breeders?
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Inhibit breeding
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Light detected by the retina controls...?
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Nocturnal release of the neurohormone melatonin from the pineal gland
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Melatonin signal encodes infro on ....
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night length that affects PT cells
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PT is what point?
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Convergence
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In response to changes in day length....
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Cells in the PT produces tyrotropin (TSH) which acts in hypothalamus to control sensitivity to thyroid hormone leading to control of breeding
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Sleep provides...
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Rest and repair
Memory consolidation Homeostasis Protection |
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Sleep deprivation
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Accumulate debt
21 hours = drunk like Shrinkage of hippocampus IQ reduction More cancer and heart disease |
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What causes cat to wake up?
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Electrical stimulation of the cholinergic neurons near the junction of pons and midbrain
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What causes cat to fall asleep?
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Electrical stimulation of the thalamus
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Hypnogram
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Sleep patterning
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EEG of Human Sleep Stages- Alpha activity
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Relaxed
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EEG of Human Sleep Stages- Beta Activity
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Alertness
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EEG of Human Sleep Stages- Theta activity dominates stage ...?
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Stage 1
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EEG of Human Sleep Stages- sleep spindles and K-complex dominate stage...?
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Stage 2
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EEG of Human Sleep Stages- Heavy delta activity or slow wave sleep in stage...?
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Stage 3 and Stage 4
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EEG of Human Sleep Stages- REM is dominated by .... activity?
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Theta and
Beta |
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Non-REM Sleep- Stage 1
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Dozing
5% Transitional period, dont recall sleeping |
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Non-REM Sleep- Stage 2
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Easily awakened
Consolidated sleep 45% Eye movements stop Brain waves larger |
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Non-REM Sleep- Stage 3
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Difficult to arouse
12% Slow wave sleep- large and slow delta waves with smaller faster ones 20-40% slow wave (delta) sleep |
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Non-REM Sleep- Stage 4
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Very deep sleep
75% of non REM sleep, 13% is spent in this stage Very groggy |
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REM Sleep
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Rapid eye movements
Activity in Pontine Tegmentum REM cells Atonia Irregular heart and breathing rate Associated with Pons-Geniculate-Occipital Cortex Waves 25% total sleep, 90-120 minutes |
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Brain Areas Active during REM
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Anterior cingulate cortex
Amygdala Parahippocampal gyrus Pontine tegmentum |
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Narcolepsy
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Disturbed noctural sleep
Rapid REM onset |
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Orexins
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AKA hypocretin
Promotes wakefulness Orexin-A, Orexin- B Two receptors |
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Orexins increase?
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metabolism
body temperature heart rate |
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Orexins inhibit?
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Release of GnRH and
Somatostatin |
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Orexins found?
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Found in discrete hypothalamic neurons
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Orexins induce?
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Hyperphagia
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Narcolepsy in dobermans
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Deletion in hypocretin 2 receptor
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Skeletal system functions
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Protection and shape
Reservoir for Ca and P Storage of growth factors and fat Detoxifies heavy metal |
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Hyaline Cartilage
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Stiff, white
Reduce joint friction by sliding area Support- C rings in trachea and bronchi Growth- longitudinal growth of bone ground substance |
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Fibrous Cartilage
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Around vertebrae, menisci
Shock absorbers Sturdiness without impeding movement Deeps sockets to lessen dislocation Ground substance= matrix=glycoprotein material, chrondroitin Non-elastic collagen fibers |
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Elastic Cartilage
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Support in soft tissue
Maintain shape Ground substance= matrix=glycoprotein material, chrondroitin Yellow elastic Fibres |
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Cartilage Composition
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Water
Collagen Proteoglycans Elastic NO blood vesels |
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BONE
Hydroxyapatite Crystals |
Calcium
Phosphate Water |
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Bone is .... % organic matter
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30%, 90-95% of that is collagen
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As bone ages
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Amorphous calcium phosphate to crystalline hydroxyapatite
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Cortical
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Structural Support
Heavy Dense |
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Trabecular (Cancellous)
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Spongy bone
Site of hematopoeisis |
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Medullary
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30-40% Calcium in Egg shell, Birds can metabolize 10% of Calcium stores per day
Regulated by hormones Woven Bone- osteoclasts and osteoblasts Does not change cell composition over day |
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Medullary bones are derived from...?
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Mesenchymal Stem Cells which give rise to osteoprogenitor cells which become bone cells (osteoblast, osteocytes, osteoclasts)
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Osteoblasts
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Lay down new bone matrix
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Osteoclasts
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Degrade bone
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Bone remodeling
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Bone is dynamic organ
Continuously renewed Balance addition and subtraction |
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Calcium homeostatasis
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Vitamin D
Calcitonin Parathyroid Hormone |
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Calcitonin
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PTH synergism
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Osteoporosis
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Slow degradation of bone
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Tibial Dyschondroplasia
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Bone grows too fast, can't fill in matrix properly
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Ventilation
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Movement of air in and out of lung
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Gas diffusion at.....
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Alveolar capillary membrane
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Other functions of Respiratory System
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Acid-base balance- bicarbonate buffer system
Temperature regulation- latent heat of vaporization Metabolism of endogenous and exogenous substances Protection against inhaled dust, toxic gas, infectious agents Phonation Olfaction |
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Nares
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opening of nose
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Nasal passages
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Turbinates
Paranasal sinuses |
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Pharynx
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Throat
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Larynx
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Voice box
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Trachea
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wind pipe
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Bronchi and bronchioles
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air
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No gas exchange tissues = anatomic dead space
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Pharynx
Nasal Passage Trachea and bronchi |
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Visceral and parietal pleura
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Visceral stuck to lungs
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Pleural fluid
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constantly exchanged
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Partial vaccuum
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between lungs and inner wall of thoracic cavity
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What will collapse alveolus?
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Surface tension
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What reduces surface tension and promotes alveolar stability?
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Pulmonary surfactant
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Surfactants
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Hydrophobic and hydrophilic proteins and lipids
Maintains shape of alveolus |
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What are surfactants produced by?
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Type 2 cells
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Parasympathetic stimulation
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Bronchoconstriction
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Inflammatory mediators (histamine, lukotriene)
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Bronchoconstriction
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Sympathetic stimulation
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Adrenaline stimulates beta2 receptors
Bronchodilation |
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Nitric oxide from noradrenergic noncholinergic nervous fibers
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Bronchodilation
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Pulmonary circulation
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Only one organ (lungs)
Brings CO2 rich blood from right ventricle to lungs Return oxygenated blood to left atrium |
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What causes contraction of pulmonary arteries?
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Neural and
Humoral Factors |
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Bronchial circulation
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Systemic cirulation
Provides oxygen rich blood circulation to airways, visceral pleura |
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Avian Respiratory System
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Each tracheal ring fused
Lungs not lobulated No alveoli- parabronchus- terminal bronchiole No diaphragm Lungs attached to rib cage- do not expand or contract Air sacs |
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Syrinx
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bird vocal cords
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Air Sacs Locations
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4 Paired, 1 unpaired
Connect to lungs via bronchi In sternum, humerus, pelvic gridle, thoracic, and cervical vertebrae Poor vascularized no gas exchange |
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Terminal Respiratory Unit- Avain
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Terminal bronchus
Air capillary Continuous tubes Air flow continuous not to and fro |
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Gas diffusion
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Passive movement of gases down a partial pressure (concentration) gradient
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Rate of gas movement
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D * A * (PaO2- PcapO2)/X
D= gas property A= surface area available for diffusion X= thickness of air-blood barrier PaO2= oxygen tension in alveoli PcapO2= oxygen tension in capillary |
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Oxygen Transport in Blood
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Low solubility in plasma
Require Hb 1 mol Hb: 4 mol oxygen |
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Carbon dioxide transport in blood
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24x more soluble than oxygen
Bicarbonate Carbamino groups |
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Hemoglobin is made of .... subunits
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4
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Hemoglobin subunits are made of...
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1 heme
protoporphyrin containing 1 ferrous iron (what oxygen attach to in lungs) |
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Oxyhemoglobin
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Bright red
Oxygen combines with ferrous iron reversibly |
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Globin
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Shields iron
Prevents oxidation of Fe2+ into Fe3+ |
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Erythropietin
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From kidneys
Help RBC maturation |
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Factors affecting hemoglobin's affinity to oxygen
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pH
Body Temperature Carbon Dioxide Tension Organic compounds (2,3, diphosphoglycerate) |
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Hemoglobin and Carboxyhemoglobin
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Carbon monoxide (CO) reduces oxygen content of blood
CO and O2 compete and bind to same site on Hb CO has 200x the affinity of oxygen for Hb |
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Hemoglobin and Methemoglobin
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Nitrites oxidize ferrous iron on Hb to ferric iron
Methemoglobinemia Methemoglobin does not bind oxygen; oxygen carrying capacity is reduced |
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Carbon dioxide ...% transported in solution
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5%
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Carbon dioxide transport
Major portion converted to.... |
Carbonic acid and later to bicarbonate and H ion
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Carbaminohemoglobin
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Coupling of CO2 to -NH group of proteins
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Gas transport during exercise
Increased oxygen demands are met by.... |
Increased cardiac output
Increase in erythrocyte number- contraction of spleen Increased extraction of blood in muscles- Myoglobin- only one heme molecule binding to one oxygen atom (not useful normal circumstances) |
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Central pattern generator- in pons
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Fire= depolarize
Initiate inhalation |
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Pulmonary Airway Receptors- Slowly adapting stretch receptors
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Nerve endings on smooth muscle in trachea, main bronchi
Stimulated by lung inflation Helps to adjust rate and depth of respiration- minimizes work |
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Pulmonary Airway Receptors- Irritant Receptors
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Myelinated nerve endings between epithelial cells in larynx, trachea, large bronchi and intrapulmonary airways
Gases, histamine release, dusts, other stimuli all stimulates irritant receptors Stimulation leads to cough, bronchoconstriction, mucus secretion, rapid shallow breathing, protective against irritants |
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Pulmonary Airway Receptors- C Fibers
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Present in the pulmonary insterstitium close to pulmonary blood capillaries
Monitor blood composition and/or distention of pulmonary insterstitium |
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Peripheral Chemoreceptors
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Monitor oxygen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen ion concentration
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Hypoxemia leads to depolarization in.....
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chemoreceptor cells
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Central Chemorepetors
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In medulla
Senses primarily CO2 concentration in blood Responds to change in interstitial tissue fluid pH A decrease in pH increases pulmonary ventilation |
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Non-respiratory functions of the lung
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Defense mechanism- aerosol particle barrier
Defense mechanism- Mucociliary blanket Defense mechanism- Alveolar macrophages Pulmonary fluid exchange- lymphatics Metabolism of hormones - serotonin, bradykinin, some prostaglandins, leukotrienes removed - Angiotensin I is converted to angiotensin II |
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Functions of Kidneys
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Remove waste to urine
Regulation of water and inorganic ion balance Removal of metabolic waste products and exogenous chemicals from the blood and their excretion in the urine Gluconeogenesis |
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Gluconeogenesis
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Non carb precursors to make glucose
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What hormones and enzymes do the kidney secrete?
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Renin
Erythropoietin 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 |
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Differences in Avian kidneys
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3 lobes
Renal pelvis absent Urinary bladder absent Ureter opens into cloaca |
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Parts of Kidney
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Capsule
Cortex Medulla Renal Pelvis |
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Functional units of Nephrons
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Glomerulus
Proximal Tubule Loop of Henle Distal Tubule Collecting Duct |
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Formation of Urine
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1. Glomerular Filtration- simple diffusion, ml/kg/min
2. Tubular absorption- fluid, hormones, electrolytes, AA, glucose 3. Tubular secretion |
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Diabetes mellitus
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High blood glucose level
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Diabetes insipidus
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Water reabsorption in kidney and vasopression
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