Advanced Nutrition: Carbohydrates And Digestion

Front 1

What are carbohydrates made up of?

Back 1

*Carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen
*CH2O- Literally the "hydrate of a carbon"

Front 2

Simple carbohydrates include what?

Back 2

*Monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose)
*Disaccharides (sucrose, maltose, lactose)

Front 3

What monosaccharides make up sucrose, maltose, and lactose?

Back 3

*Sucrose: Glucose & fructose
*Maltose: Glucose & glucose
*Lactose: Glucose & galactose

Front 4

Complex carbohydrates include what?

Back 4

*Oligosaccharides (trisaccharides are most common)
*Polysaccharides (glycogen is an example!)

Front 5

Transcription occurs in the _______.
Translation occurs in the ________.

Back 5

*Transcription- Cell nucleus
*Translation- Cytoplasm

Front 6

Reactions that occur most often in the cell and have the same enzyme catalyzing the reactions in both directions are _________

Back 6

*Reversible reactions

Front 7

Reactions that require a different enzyme to reverse it are ________. These reactions may also result in allosteric regulators.

Back 7

*Irreversible reactions.

Front 8

What is the immediate source of energy for the body?

Back 8

ATP

Front 9

NADH2 produces how many ATP?

Back 9

3 ATP

Front 10

FADH2 produces how many ATP?

Back 10

2 ATP

Front 11

Exothermic reactions are energy ______ reactions; While endothermic reactions are energy _______ reactions.

Back 11

*Exo are energy-yielding or energy-releasing; -G
*Endo are energy-consuming or energy-requiring; +G

Front 12

How long is the digestive tract?

Back 12

16 feet!

Front 13

What are the four layered walls of the digestive tract, and give brief description.

Back 13

*MUCOSA: epithelial cells and brush border
*SUBMUCOSA: anchor
*MUSCULARIS EXTERNA: longitudinal/circular muscles
*SEROSA: Outer layer

Front 14

The small intestine is made up of what?

Back 14

The duodenum, jejunum, and ileum

Front 15

The large intestine is made up of what?

Back 15

Ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, and sigmoid

Front 16

Parietal cells are stomach epithelial cells that secrete what two things?

Back 16

*HCl
*Intrinsic factor

Front 17

Why is HCl needed in the body?

Back 17

*to denature protein
*help kill bad organisms and sterilize food
*help activate pepsinogen into the active form, pepsin

Front 18

Gastric chief cells are involved with what?

Back 18

The release of pepsinogen (and gastric lipase and chymosin). It works in conjunction with the parietal cells that release gastric acid- Together they convert pepsinogen into pepsin (the active form).

Front 19

The stomach is the primary start for _________ digestion.

Back 19

Protein

Front 20

What are the four "accessory organs" (separate from the digestive system)?

Back 20

The liver, gall bladder, pancreas, and salivary glands

Front 21

Which accessory organ makes bile, and which stores bile?

Back 21

*Makes bile- liver
*Stores bile- gall bladder

Front 22

The pancreas involves what three components?

Back 22

*Acnir cells
*Duct cells
*Endocrine portion (alpha & beta cells)

Front 23

Crypt of Lieberkuhn is located where; what does it do?

Back 23

*Bottom of the musoca
*Site of the production of epithelial cells (intestinal wall is made of epithelial)

Front 24

What is the longitudinal muscle that is involved in peristalsis; considered “contracted”?

Back 24

Tenia colon

Front 25

What are the pouches on the colon wall; considered “non-contracted”?

Back 25

Haustra

Front 26

Regulatory peptides & hormones include (6):

Back 26

Gastrin, CCK, secretin, gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP), somatostatin, & motilin.

Front 27

Neuropeptides include (4):

Back 27

VIP (vasoactive intestinal peptide), gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP), neurotensin, & substance P

Front 28

What enzyme is involved in the mouth?

Back 28

Alpha-amylase (salivary)

Front 29

What enzyme is involved in the stomach?

Back 29

Pepsinogen (HCl activates pepsinogen to make pepsin)

Front 30

What enzymes are involved in the pancreas?

Back 30

*Pancreatic amylase (starch into maltose)
*Lipase (fat-related)
*Proteases (protein-related)

Front 31

What enzymes are involved in the small intestine?

Back 31

*Disaccharidases (break down lactose, maltose, and sucrose)
*Aminopeptidases (break down di & tri peptide bonds in amino acids)

Front 32

Which disaccharide is formed primarily from the partial hydrolysis of starch; And with what enzyme is this accomplished?

Back 32

Maltose; alpha-amylase

Front 33

The layer of carbohydrate on the surface of the cell involved in both intracellular communication and recognition is known as the _________.

Back 33

Glycocalyx

Front 34

What is the name of the outermost wall (tunic) of the digestive tract?

Back 34

Serosa

Front 35

Beta-oxidation takes place in what cellular organelle?

Back 35

Mitochondria

Front 36

Ribosome synthesis occurs in what part of the cell?

Back 36

Nucleolus

Front 37

The glycolytic reaction in which 1,3 bis-P-glycerate is converted to 3-P-glycerate, and ADP is turned into ATP is what kind of phosphorylation?

Back 37

Substrate-level phosphorylation

Front 38

Reversible or irreversible reactions occur most often in the cell?

Back 38

Reversible

Front 39

In this reaction, the same enzyme catalyzes in both directions.

Back 39

Reversible

Front 40

In this reaction, a different enzyme is required to reverse the reaction.

Back 40

Irreversible

Front 41

____________ impact on pathways elsewhere to produce non-equilibrium reactions.

Back 41

Allosteric regulators

Front 42

The class of enzymes that usually involve the transfer of hydrogens and electrons, and includes the Electron Transport Chain is:

Back 42

Oxidoreductases

Front 43

The class of enzymes that involve the transfer of carbon, nitrogen, or phosphate-containing groups (involves protein metabolism, amino transferases, and enzyme of ALT -> liver problems) is:

Back 43

Transferases

Front 44

What makes an amino acid essential?

Back 44

If the body can't make the amino acid in the body, it is considered "essential". You must get those from your diet.

Front 45

The class of enzymes involving using water to break carbon-carbon bonds (protein metabolism) is:

Back 45

Hydrolases

Front 46

The class of enzymes involving the cleaving of C-C, C-N, and C-S bonds is:

Back 46

Lyases

Front 47

The class of enzymes involving the "interconversion" of atoms within the molecule is:

Back 47

Isomerases

Front 48

The class of enzymes involving the formation of bonds between carbon and other atoms (oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen) is:

Back 48

Ligases

Front 49

The crypt of Lieberkuhn is the site of what?

Back 49

Production of epithelial cells (that make up the intestinal wall)

Front 50

What is the rate limiting enzyme in glycolysis?

Back 50

PFK

Front 51

What slows PFK?

Back 51

1. PFK is allosterically inhibited by ATP, so glycolysis is slowed when cellular ATP concentrations are high.
2. High citrate levels!

Front 52

What enzyme is used to "unzip" the DNA strand?

Back 52

DNA polymerase

Front 53

Alpha cells secrete the hormone __________.

Back 53

Glucagon

Front 54

Beta cells secrete the hormone ___________.

Back 54

Insulin

Front 55

Gastrin is made in the _____ cells of the stomach.

Back 55

"G"

Front 56

Cholecystokinin (CCK) is made by the "I" cells of the __________ ___________ ___________.

Back 56

Proximal small intestine

Front 57

The only source of energy for red blood cells is:

Back 57

Glucose

Front 58

What cellular structure acts as the "anchor" during cell division?

Back 58

Centriole

Front 59

What is the most superior sphincter in the body?

Back 59

Lower Esophageal Sphincter (LES)

Front 60

Where is the hexose monophosphate shunt located & what are the two important functions?

Back 60

*Located in the cytoplasm
*Ribose & lipid synthesis

Front 61

T & C are ___________.
A & G are ____________.

Back 61

T & C are pyridines.
A & G are purines.

Front 62

What is the approximate volume of the stomach when full?

Back 62

1-1.5 Liters

Front 63

What is the plasmic membrane's role in phagocytosis?

Back 63

Phagocytosis is the cellular process of engulfing solid particles by the plasmic/cell membrane to form an internal phagosome (which is a cellular compartment in which pathogenic microorganisms can be killed and digested).

Front 64

What is the importance of the anomeric carbon and the highest chiral center in configurations?

Back 64

It is important where it bonds. The anomeric carbons and highest chiral centers interact with each other to make the bond with oxygen.

Front 65

Sphincter of Oddi's role:

Back 65

Controls secretion from pancreas, gall bladder, and liver.

Front 66

In simplest terms, glycolysis is:

Back 66

The pathway by which glucose is degraded into two 3-carbons, pyruvate.

Front 67

Anaerobic glycolysis is the sole source of energy for erythrocytes because the red blood cell does not contain ____________.

Back 67

Mitochondria

Front 68

Under aerobic conditions, pyruvate can be transported into the mitochondria and participate in the TCA cycle, in which it becomes completely oxidized to _____ and ______.

Back 68

CO2 and H2O

Front 69

In cells that lack mitochondria, the pathway of glycolysis is the sole provider of ______ by the mechanism of _____________ phosphorylation.

Back 69

ATP; substrate-level phosphorylation

Front 70

What is the importance of capillary verus lacteal transport?

Back 70

*Capillary (vascular)- transports water-soluble nutrients
*Lacteal (lymph)- transports fat-soluble nutrients

Front 71

Brush border enzymes include (5):

Back 71

Isomaltase: breakdown of starch into glucose
Maltase: breakdown of starch into glucose
Sucrase: Sucrose to glucose
Lactase: Lactose to glucose
Maltase: Maltose to glucose

Front 72

Where do the fat-soluble nutrients in the lymphatic transport go?

Back 72

The thoracic duct then to subclavian vein into the blood!

Front 73

Where do the water-soluble nutrients in the vascular transport go?

Back 73

The liver!

Front 74

When whey amylase works on amylopectin what is generated?

Back 74

Isomaltose
Maltose
Maltotriose

Front 75

What are possible products of CHO metabolism of the lumen before crossing over the brush border?

Back 75

Glucose
Galactose
Fructose

Front 76

After glucose and galactose are absorbed by active transport, what transporter is involved?

Back 76

SGLT 1 (sodium glucose transporter)

Front 77

After fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion, what transporter is involved?

Back 77

GLUT 5 (Non-insulin dependent)

Front 78

After the absorbed sugars enter portal blood and go to the liver, what transporter is involved?

Back 78

GLUT 2 (Non-insulin dependent)

Front 79

Glucose entry into the muscle and adipose tissue is insulin-dependent and requires facilitated transport by __________.

Back 79

GLUT 4

Front 80

What enzymes phosphorylate alpha-D-glucose to glucose 6-phosphate?

Back 80

Either glucokinase or hexokinase

Front 81

Where is glucokinase used?

Back 81

Liver/pancreas

Front 82

Where is hexokinase used?

Back 82

Muscle, adipose tissue, and brain

Front 83

What hormone induces the enzymes in glycogenesis?

Back 83

Insulin

Front 84

What enzymes does insulin induce?

Back 84

Glucokinase, hexokinase, and glycogen synthase