Acc 261 Exam 1

Front 1

Be able to explain the organizational approach to systems analysis and design

Back 1

The balance between methodologies, techniques, and tools

Front 2

• What’s the difference between a methodology, techniques, and tools and be able to give examples of each.

Back 2

Methodologies are comprehensive, multi-step approaches to systems development that will guide your work and influence the quality of your final product – the information system. A methodology will be consistent with its general mgmt. style. Most methodologies incorporate several development techniques.
Techniques are particular processes that you as an analyst will follow to help ensure that your work is well thought out, complete, and comprehensible to others on your project team. Techniques provide support for a wide range of tasks, including conducting thorough interviews to determine what your system should do, planning and managing the activities in the systems development project, diagramming the system’s logic, and designing the reports your system will generate.
Tools are typically computer programs that make it easy to use and benefit from techniques and to faithfully follow the guidelines of the overall development methodology. To be effective, techniques and tools must both be consistent with an orgs systems development methodology. Techniques and tools must make it easy for systems developers to conduct the steps called for in the methodology.

Front 3

• What is the Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) and why in the world would someone want to use it (hint: remember Milner)?

Back 3

The traditional methodology used to develop, maintain, and replace information systems.

Front 4

What are the different phases of the SDLC and what does each phase include?

Back 4

Planning: The first phase of the SDLC in which an organization’s total information system needs are identified, analyzed, prioritized, and arranged. The org must investigate the system problem or opportunity at hand and determine the scope of the proposed system.
Analysis: System requirements are studied and structured. Analysts work with users to determine what the users want from a proposed system including a careful study of any current systems, manual or computerized, that might be replaced or enhanced as part of the project. The study of the requirements and structure them according to inter-relationships, and eliminate any redundancies. The output of the analysis phase is a description (not a detailed design) of the alternative solution recommended by the analysis team. Acquire hardware and software necessary to build/operate the system.
Design: The description of the recommended solution in converted into logical and then physical system specifications. All aspects must be designed like input and output screens to reports, databases, and computer processes. The analyst must provide the physical specifics of the system they have designed, either as a model or as detailed documentation to guide those who build the new system.
Implementation: The information system is coded, tested, installed, and supported in the organization. Testing and installation should be planned ASAP because they both require extensive analysis to develop the right approach. Documentation and training programs are created in this phase. Installation must be done thoroughly and without mistake.
Maintenance: The information system is systematically repaired and improved. The system should be continuously updated and any errors and problems should be addressed before they become serious.

Front 5

Waterfall SDLC:

Back 5

Pros:
1. Well organized
2. Tasks were completed
Cons:
1. Difficulty adjusting to a dynamic business environment
2. Roles of system users/customers are narrowly defined
3. Difficult to go back once a task was completed
4. Extremely expensive if errors were found in previous tasks

Front 6

CASE (computer-aided software engineering) Tools

Back 6

Pros:
1. Support a wide variety of SDLC activities
2. Central repository of project information
3. Increases efficiency and effectiveness by automating routine tasks
Cons:
1. May not fit company goals
2. Difficult to apply to unique/complex business systems

Front 7

Rapid Application Development (RAD)

Back 7

Pros:
1. Brings together developers and end-users
2. Combines SDLC phases to increase speed (in theory reduces time by 75%)
3. Looks at system in isolation
Cons:
1. Only works well for systems that need to be developed quickly

Front 8

Service Oriented Architecture (SOA)

Back 8

Pros:
1. Can facilitate RAD through service assembly
2. High ROI
3. Access through the internet
Cons:
1. Significant change in development philosophy
2. Focus is on service NOT application

Front 9

Agile Methods

Back 9

Motivated by recognition of software development as fluid, unpredictable, and dynamic
Three key principles
1. Adaptive rather than predictive
2. Emphasize people rather than roles
3. Self-adaptive processes

Front 10

eXtreme programming

Back 10

Short incremental development cycles, Automated tests, two person programming teams. Coding and testing operate together
Pros:
1. Communication between developers
2. High level of productivity
3. High quality code
Cons:
1. not applicable to every project

Front 11

• What are the four types of skills that are required to be a systems analyst? Give examples of what a SA can do with each skill.

Back 11

1. Analytical skills
2. Technical skills
3. Management skills
4. Interpersonal skills

Front 12

What is unique about systems analysts (as compared to business users or programmers)?

Back 12

1. Knows technology and business well enough to work with both groups
2. Has the four types of skills
3. Has frameworks and tools to make sense of things (SDLC, SWOT, PIECES)
4. Has techniques: ways of taking vague problems and turning out a concrete model or representation that programmers can use
5. Knowing the right systems that are needed (business), and how needs can be met with feasible technology (system)
6. What are the capabilities of a technology (system) and how business side can benefit from the new technology (business)

Front 13

Outsourcing

Back 13

Pros:
1. Frees up internal resources
2. Increases revenue potential of the org
3. Reducing time to market
4. Increasing process efficiencies
5. Outsourcing noncore activities
Cons:
1. Takes away jobs from people?

Front 14

IT service firms

Back 14

Pros/Cons

Front 15

Packaged Software Producers

Back 15

Pros:
1. Simplicity
Cons:
1. Cannot be modified to meet specific needs of an org

Front 16

Enterprise resource planning systems

Back 16

Pros:
1. A single repository of data for all aspects of a business process
2. Flexibility of modules
3. More consistent and accurate data
4. Less maintenance

Cons:
1. Systems are very complex
2. Implementation takes a long time
3. Often have to rely on consultants or employees of software vendor

Front 17

Cloud computing

Back 17

Pros:
1. Frees up internal IT staff
2. Gain access to applications faster than via internal development
3. Achieving lower-cost access to corporate-quality applications

Cons:
1. Reliability
2. Security
3. Compliance with government regulations

Front 18

Open Source Software

Back 18

Pros:
1. Free of charge
2. Ability to edit programs to fit your orgs needs
Cons:
1. Low customer support

Front 19

In-House Development

Back 19

Pros:
Cons:

Front 20

How can you evaluate off-the-shelf software?

Back 20

Through its: Cost, Functionality, Vendor support, Viability of vendor, Flexibility, Documentation, Response time, Ease of installation

Front 21

What is reuse and some of the tradeoffs to using reuse in the SDLC?

Back 21

The use of previously written software resources, especially objects and components, in new applications. Setting up for reuse is expensive:
d. Lack of organizational commitment
e. Lack of training
f. Costly in terms of resources to create from the start

Front 22

Be able to describe the common activities and skills of a project manager.

Back 22

See chart

Front 23

Know why we do project management; the process of project management.

Back 23

the process of scoping, planning, staffing, organizing, directing, and controlling the development of an acceptable system at a minimum cost within a specified time frame.
Project management may be the most important aspect of systems development.
-Effective PM helps to ensure
◦ The meeting of customer expectations.
◦ The satisfying of budget and time constraints.
◦ PM skills are difficult and important to learn.

Front 24

• Be able to draw and explain the reasons behind the Expectation Matrix (ie, why is it useful? What problems does it address?). Also be able to explain how to use it with a client.

Back 24

See chart

Front 25

• Be able to draw and explain the reasons behind the network diagram (ie, why is it useful? What problems does it address?). Also be able to explain how to use it with a client.

Back 25

A network diagram can show you the critical path of tasks (aka the shortest time to complete a task or project), a network diagram can also show which events have slack time, and a network diagram conveniently shows all the different paths one can take in completing a project.

Front 26

Be able to explain and find the critical path, shortest expected completion time, and slack time.

Back 26

Critical path: The shortest time in which a project can be completed. Any activity on the critical path that is delayed will cause the whole project to be delayed.
Slack time: The amount of time that can be delayed off the critical path without delaying the project.

Front 27

Be able to estimate task duration

Back 27

Expected Time = (Optimistic time + 4(Realistic time) + Pessimistic time)

Front 28

• Be able to describe how to build and use a Gantt chart. Don't worry about the tool (e.g., MS-Project) aspects, just the Gantt chart concepts.

Back 28

A horizontal bar is drawn for each activity that reflects its sequence and duration

Front 29

Be able to identify and explain the 10 principles of good system development (why is each important).

Back 29

1. Get the system users involved (& educated)
Why?
Analysts can’t know requirements without them
Users may resist the IS when delivered (buy-in)
How?
Cross-functional design teams
“Sign-off” on requirements at certain milestones
Formal and informal discussions
Goal:
Other than above, help user learn to appreciate the opportunity of the IS
2. Use a Problem Solving Approach
Study and understand the problem’s context, and cause-effects
Define the requirements that must be met by any suitable solutions
Identify solutions that fit the requirements (Buy? Build? Modify?) and choose the best
Design and/or implement the chosen solution
Observe and evaluate the solution’s impact and change if needed.

3. Establish phases and activities
Why?
◦ They characterize the kinds of work; everyone knows what’s going on
◦ Natural checkpoint after each phase, for sign off, track progress, check “over time” project
◦ Way of identifying, in retrospect, what happened when, so you can go back and fix it
The SDLC phases: Planning, analysis, design, implementation, and maintenance

4. Document through development
Document as you go, not just at the end
Good for communication
Words, flow charts, record layouts, program logic flows, tables of values, etc.
Not a phase, but on-going
5. Establish standards
Provide a means for everyone in the organization to be on the same page
For technology:
Database: e.g., engines, platforms, etc.
Software: e.g., application development environment
Interface: e.g., how developed, data exchange?

6. Manage the process and project
Process management
Use process management (the methodology) consistently
Project management
Meet customers expectations and deliver IS within budget and under schedule
Both of these deal with quality!

7. Justify information systems as capital investments
Cost benefit analysis (Cost effectiveness)
Tangibles vs intangibles
Risk Management
Compare options:
Computer or manual
If computer, client-server or mainframe?
Build or buy?
We do it, or Ernst & Young does it?
Product A or product B?
Build the business case, especially the economic argument.

8. Don’t be afraid to cancel or revise scope
Creeping commitment approach
“Creeping commitment” is the problem – someone increases the number or complexity of requirements beyond agreed upon scope,
Build in many checkpoints to make sure the project isn't getting out of control.
If project gets out of control, then
(1) cancel,
(2) reevaluate costs-benefits and get new signoff, or
(3) reduce scope.
Sunk (unrecoverable) costs.

9. Divide and Conquer
Divide up the system into subsystems or components
Do this repeatedly to simplify the problem-solving process

10. Design systems for growth and change
Well-designed systems can scale up and adapt to the business
Be flexible
Don’t look only to the present needs but also prepare for the future

Front 30

Be able to explain PIECES: what it is, how we use it, and why it's useful to systems analysts. Be able to provide two questions or kinds of information you would apply to each point in PIECES (e.g., give two questions you could ask your client about “P”). [see the handout that I’ve posted on the Blackboard website- under both your project and class notes).

Back 30

P: the need to improve performance
I: the need to improve information (and data)
E: the need to improve economics, control costs, or increase profits
C: the need to improve control and security
E: the need to improve efficiency of people and processes
S: the need to improve service to customers, suppliers, employees, etc.

Front 31

• Be able to explain SWOT: what it is, how do we use it, and why it is useful to systems analysts. Be able to give examples of how IS can be used in each of these areas.

Back 31

Internal: Strengths/Weaknesses External: Opportunities/Threats

Front 32

• Be able to explain and apply the Value Chain, the Critical Success Factors, and the Competitive
The Value Chain

Back 32

See chart AND
Critical Success Factors
Key idea: Some processes or activities are more important to the business success than others. This sort of interviewing technique identifies, prioritizes those activities, then establishes concrete measures for each.
◦ Step 1: For each executive or executive team, ask them to list all the important functions or processes in the business, without which their business would fail, or at least become less competitive.
◦ Step 2: Then ask them to prioritize the items on the list.
◦ Step 3: Then ask them to pick the top 5. Originally, those represented the Critical Success Factors

Front 33

Be able to describe the following deliverables and how a systems analyst would use it:, Business Case, Baseline Project Plan, Project Scope Statement.

Back 33

Business case: The justification for an information system, presented in the terms of the tangible and intangible economic benefits and costs and the technical and organizational feasibility of the proposed system.
Baseline Project Plan(BPP): A major outcome and deliverable from the project initiation and planning phase that contains the best estimate of a projects scope, benefits, costs, risks, and resource requirements.
Project Scope Statement (PSS): A document prepared for the customer that describes what the project will deliver and outlines generally at a high level all work required to complete the project.

Front 34

What is project scope? Why is it important to the project, and what are the factors that determine the project scope?

Back 34

Project scope: "The work that needs to be accomplished to deliver a product, service, or result with the specified features and functions."
Factors:
-Organizational units affected by new system
-Current systems that will interact with or change because of new system
-People who are affected by new system
-Range of potential system capabilities

Front 35

Be able to define and explain each type of feasibility.

Back 35

Operational feasibility:
-Will the proposed system attain its desired objectives
-Does the proposed system solve problems or take advantage of opportunities?
-PIECES
-SWOT
-Relate your project to the business plan/mission
-Show how your proposed system will affect organizational procedures

Front 36

Technical feasibility:

Back 36

-Assessing the organization’s ability to construct the proposed system
-Takes into account various project risk factors
-Is the proposed solution/technology practical?
◦ Maturity? Advantages/disadvantages
-Do we currently have the necessary technology
◦ Yes: Enough capacity, functionality?
◦ No: Can we buy it? Integratable? Scalable? Affordable?
-Do we have enough technical knowledge to apply the system?
-What about other risk factors…?

Front 37

Schedule feasibility:

Back 37

-Are the project deadlines reasonable?
◦ Problems: Go away or cost too much before we’re done
◦ Opportunities: Go away before we’re done
-With respect to system quality
◦ Not enough time to develop a sufficient quality system
◦ Too much time (increased cost, reduced urgency for system)

Front 38

Legal and Political feasibility:

Back 38

-Legal and Contractual
◦ What are legal and contractual ramifications of the proposed system development project?
-Political
How do key stakeholders view the proposed system?

Front 39

Economic feasibility

Back 39

Benefits:
Tangible:
-Cost reduction
-Error reduction
-Increased speed of activity
Intangible:
-Competitive necessity
-More timely information
-Improved organizational planning
-Availability of new/better information
-Improved work process and improved employee morale
-Positive impacts on society

Front 40

-Costs:
◦ Tangible and Intangible
◦ One-time vs recurring
◦ Fixed vs variable operating costs

Back 40

-Determining Cost Effectiveness
◦ Return-on-Investment
◦ Net Present Value Analysis
◦ Break-even or Payback Analysis

Front 41

Be able to translate an intangible benefit into a plausible tangible benefit.

Back 41

Tangible:
-Cost reduction
-Error reduction
-Increased speed of activity
Intangible:
-Competitive necessity
-More timely information
-Improved organizational planning
-Availability of new/better information
-Improved work process and improved employee morale
-Positive impacts on society

Front 42

• Be able to calculate and describe the difference between the different kinds of measures of cost effectiveness. You should be able to know why you would use them and explain them.

Back 42

-Issues:
o Cost benefit spread over a number of years
o Cash Flow: Benefits and costs for every year over a period
o Worth of money changes with time

Front 43

-Analysis techniques
o Break-even/Payback analysis
o Return-on-investment (ROI)
o Net Present Value (NPV)

Back 43

Break-Even/Payback analysis:
-How much time until benefits overtake the costs?
-Layout Cumulative costs + benefits over a period of time then look for positive numbers
-Use number of years/months to compare projects
-Companies like short payback periods





Return on Investments (ROI)
Return on investment (ROI) is income divided by investment:
ROI = (total lifetime benefits - total lifetime costs)
total lifetime costs
The higher the ROI, the better

Front 44

Concepts for measuring cost effectiveness:

Back 44

Discount rate: opportunity cost for investing funds somewhere else or what the company views as a good investment return
Present value of costs and benefit:
◦ PV = V / (1+rate)**n, where n is the number of years in future, V = Value amount
◦ Always bring it back to the present value to compare

Front 45

Net Present Value (NPV):

Back 45

-Calculate the expected net value or loss from a project over it’s lifetime
-NPV = NPV benefit – NPV cost
-Projects with a positive NPV should be considered if financial value is a key criterion
-The higher the NPV, the better