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181 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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psychopathology
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symptoms that cause mental, emotional, and/or physical pain
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context
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environment and circumstances in which a behavior occurs
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gender roles
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according to Freud, what society considers to be the appropriate behaviors for males or females
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cultural relativism
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view that norms among cultures set the standard for what counts as normal behavior, which implies that abnormal behavior can only be defined relative to these norms; no universal definition of abnormality is therefore possible; only definitions of abnormality relative to a specific culture are possible.
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unusualness
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criterion for abnormality that suggests that abnormal behaviors are rare or unexpected
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discomfort
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criterion for abnormality that suggests that only behaviors that cause a person great distress should be labeled as abnormal
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mental illness
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phrase used to refer to a physical illness that causes severe abnormal thoughts, behaviors, and feelings
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maladaptive
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in reference to behaviors, causing people who have the beahviors physical or emotional harm, preventing them from functioning in daily life, and/or indicating that they have lost touch with reality and/or cannot control tehir thoughts and behavior (also called dsyfunctional)
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biological theories
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theories of abnormality that focus on biological causes of abnormal behaviors
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supernatural theories
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theories that see mental disorders as the result of supernatural forces, such as divine intervention, curses, demonic possession, and/pr personal sins; mental disorders can be cured through religious rituals, exorcisms, confessions, and/or death
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psychological theories
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theories that view mental disorders as caused by psychological processes, such as beliefs, thinking styles, and coping styles
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trephination
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procedure in which holes were drilled in the skulls of people displaying abnormal behavior to allow evil spirits to depart their bodies; performed in the Stone Age
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psychic epidemics
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phenomena in which large numbers of people begin to engage in unusual behaviors that appear to have a psychological origin
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moral treatment
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type of treatment delivered in mental hospitals in which patients were treated with respect and dignity and were encouraged to exercise self-control
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general paresis
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disease that leads to paralysis, insanity, and eventually death; discovery of this disease helped establish a connection between biological diseases and mental disorders
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mesmerism
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treatment for hysterical patients based on the idea that magnetic fluids in the patients' bodies are affected by the magnetic forces of other people and objects; the patients' magnetic forces are thought to be realigned by the practitioner through his or her own magnetic force
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psychoanalysis
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form of treatment for psychopathology involving alleviating unconscious conflicts driving psychological symptoms by helping people gain insight into their conflicts and finding ways of resolving these conflicts
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behaviorism
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study of the impact of reinforcements and punishments on behavior
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cognitions
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thoughts or beliefs
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self-efficacy beliefs
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beliefs that one can engage in the behaviors necessary to overcome a situation
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patients' rights movement
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movement to ensure that mental patients retain their basic rights and to remove them frmo institutions and care for them in the community
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deinstitutionalization
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movement in which thousands of mental patients were released from mental instituions; a result of the patients' rights movement, which was aimed at stopping the dehumanizing of mental patients and at restoring their basic legal rights
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community mental-health movement
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movement launched in 1963 that attempted to provide coordinated mental-health services to people in community-based treatment centers
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managed care
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health care system in which all necessary services for an individual patient are supposed to be coordinated by a primary care provider; the goals are to coordinate services for an existing medical problem and to prevent future medical problems before they arise
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integrationist approach
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approach to psychopathology that emphasizes how biolgical, psychological, and social factors interact and influence each other to produce and maintain mental-helath problems
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mental hygiene movement
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movement to treat mental patients more humanely and to view mental disorders as medical diseases
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theory
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set of assumptions about the likely causes of abnormality and appropriate treatments
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biological approach
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view that biological factors cause and should be used to treat abnormality
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psychological approach
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approach to abnormality that focuses on personality, behavior, and ways of thinking as possible causes of abnormality
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social approach
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approach to abnormality that focuses on interpersonal relationships, culture, society, and the environment as possible causes of abnormality
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vulnerability-stress models
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comprehensive models of the many factors that lead some people to develop a mental disorder
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cerebral cortex
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part of the brain that regulates complex activities, such as speech and analytical thinking
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hypothalamus
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component of the brain that regulates eating, drinking, sex, and basic emotions; abnormal behaviors involving ant of these activities may be the result of dysfunction in the hypothalamus
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limbic system
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part of the brain that relays information from the primitive brain stem about changes in bodily functions to the cortex, where the information is interpreted
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neurotransmitters
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biochemicals, released from a sending neuron, that transmit messages to a receiving neuron in the brain and nervous system
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synapse
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space between a sending neuron and a receiving neuron into which neurotransmitters are first released (also known as the synaptic gap)
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receptors
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molecules on the membranes of neurons to which neurotransmitters bind
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reuptake
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process in which a sending neuron reabsorbs some of the neurotransmitter in the synapse, decreasing the amount left in the synapse
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degradation
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process in which a receiving neuron releases an enzyme into the synapse, breaking down neurotransmitters into other biochemicals
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endocrine system
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system of glands that produces many different hormones
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hormone
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chemical the carries messages throughout the body, potentially affecting a person's moods, levels of energy, and reactions to stress
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pituitary
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major endocrine gland that lies partly on the outgrowth of the brain and just below the hypothalamus; produces the largest number of different hormones and controls the secretions of other endocrine glands
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behavior genetics
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study of the processes by which genes affect behavior and the extent to which personality and abnormality are genetically inherited
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polygenic
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combinations of many genes, each of which makes a small contribution to an inherited trait
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family history study
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study of the heritability of a disorder involving identifying people with the disorder and people without the disorder and then determining the disorder's frequency within each person's family
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monozygotic (MZ) twins
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twins who share 100 percent of their genes, because they developed from a single fertilized egg
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predisposition
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tendency to develop a disorder that must interact with other biological, psychological, or environmental factors for the disorder to develop
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dizygotic (DZ) twins
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twins who average only about 50 percent of their genes in common because they developed from two separate fertilized eggs
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twin studies
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studies of the heritability of a disorder by comparing concordance rates between monozygotic and dizygotic twins
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concordance rate
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probability that both twins will develop a disorder if one twin has the disorder
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adoption study
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study of the heritability of a disorder by finding adopted people with a disorder and then determining their biological and adoptive relatives, in order to separate out contributing genetic and environmental factors
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psychodynamic theories
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theories developed by Freud's followers but usually differing somewhat from Freud's original theories
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psychoanalysis
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form of treatment for psychopathology involving alleviating unconscious conflicts driving psychological symptoms by helping people gain insight into their conflicts and finding ways of resolving these conflicts
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catharsis
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expression of emotions connected to memories and conflicts, which, according to Freud, leads to the release of energy used to keep these memories in the unconscious
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repression
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defense mechanism in which the ego pushes anxiety-provoking material back into the unconscious
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libido
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according to Freud, psychical energy derived from physiological drives
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id
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according to Freud, most primitive part of the unconscious; consists of drives and impulses seeking immediate gratification
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pleasure principle
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drive to maximize pleasure and minimize pain as quickly as possible
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primary process thinking
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wish fulfillment, or fantasies, humans use to conjure up desired objects or actions; an example is a hungry infant's imagining its mother's breast when she is not present
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ego
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part of the psyche that channels libido acceptable to the superego and within the constraints of reality
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reality principle
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idea that the ego seeks to satisfy one's needs within the realities of society's rules, rather than following the abandon of the pleasure principle
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secondary process thinking
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rational deliberation, as opposed to the irrational thought of primary process thinking
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superego
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part of the unconscious that consists of absolute moral standards internalized from one's parents during childhood and from one's culture
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introject
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to internalize moral standards because following them makes one feel good and reduces anxiety
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unconscious
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area of the psyche where memories, wishes, and needs are stored and where conflicts among the id, ego, and superego are played out
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preconscious
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according to Freud, area of the psyche that contains material from the unconscious before it reaches the conscious mind
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conscious
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mental contents and processes of which we are actively aware
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defense mechanisms
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strategies the ego uses to disguise or transform unconscious wishes
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neurotic paradox
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psychoanalytic term for a condition in which an individual's way of coping with unconscious concerns creates even more problems in that individual's life
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psychosexual stages
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according to Freud, stages in the developmental process children pass through; in each stage, sex drives are focused on the stimulation of certain areas of the body and particular psychological issues can arouse anxiety
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oral stage
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according to Freud, earliest psychosexual stage, lasting for the first 18 months of life; libidinal impulses are best satisfied through the stimulation of the mouth area, including actions such as feeding or sucking; major issues of concern are dependence and the reliability of others
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anal stage
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according to Freud, psychosexual stage that occurs between the ages of 18 months and 3 years; the focus of gratification is the anus, and children are interested in toilet activities; parents can cause children to be fixated in this stage by being too harsh and critical during toilet training
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phallic stage
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according to Freud, psychosexual stage that occurs between the ages of 3 and 6; the focus of pleasure is the genitals; important conflicts of sexual development emerge at this time, differing for boys and girls
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Oedipus complex
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according to Freud, major conflict of male sexual development, during which boys are sexually attracted to their mothers and hate their fathers as rivals
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castration anxiety
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according to Freud, boys' fear that their fathers will retaliate against them by castrating them; this fear serves as motivation for them to put aside their desires for their mothers and to aspire to become like their fathers
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Electra complex
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Freud's theory that girls realize during the phallic stage that they don't have a penis and are horrified at the discovery; they realize that their mothers also don't have penises and disdain females for this deficit; an attraction for the father ensues, following the belief that he can provide a penis
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penis envy
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according to Freud, wish to have the male sex organ
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latency stage
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according to Freud, period of psychosexual development, following the phallic stage, in which libidinal drives are quelled and children's energy turns toward the development of skills and interests and toward becoming fully socialized to the world; the opposite sex is avoided
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genital stage
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psychosexual stage that occurs around the age of 12, when children's sex drives reemerge; if a child has successfully resolved the phallic stage, interest in sex turns toward heterosexual relationships
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object relations
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view held by a group of modern psychodynamic theorists that one develops a self-concept and appraisals of others in a four-stage process during childhood and retains them throughout adulthood; psychopathology consists of an incomplete progression through these stages or an acquisition of poor self and other concepts
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splitting
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in object relations theory, phenomenon wherein a person splits conceptions of self and others into either all-good or all-bad categories, neglecting to recognize people's mixed qualities
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behavioral theories
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theories that focus on an individual's history of reinforcements and punishments as causes for abnormal behavior
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classical conditioning
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form of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally elicits a response, thereby making the neutral stimulus itself sufficient to elicit the same response
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unconditioned stimulus (US)
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in classical conditioning, stimulus that naturally elicits a reaction, as food elicits salvation in dogs
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unconditioned response (UR)
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in classical conditioning, response that naturally follows when a certain stimulus appears, such as a dog salivating when it smells food
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conditioned stimulus (CS)
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in classical conditioning, previously neutral stimulus that, when paired with a natural stimulus, becomes sufficient to elicit a response
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conditioned response (CR)
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in classical conditioning, response that first followed a natural stimulus but that now follows a conditioned stimulus
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operant conditioning
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form of learning in which behaviors lead to consequences that either reinforce or punish the organism, leading to an increased or a decreased probability of a future response
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continuous reinforcement schedule
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system of behavior modification in which certain behaviors are always rewarded or punished, leading to rapid learning of desired responses
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partial reinforcement schedule
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form of behavior modification in which a behavior is rewarded or punished only some of the time
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extinction
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abolition of a learned behavior
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social learning theory
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theory that people learn behaviors by imitating and observing others and by learning about the rewards and punishments that follow behaviors
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modeling
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process of learning behaviors by imitating others, especially authority figures or those like oneself
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observational learning
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learning that occurs when a person observes the rewards and punishments of another's behavior and then behaves in accordance with the same rewards and punishments
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cognitive theories
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therapeutic approaches that focus on changing people's maladaptive thought patterns
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cognitions
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thoughts or beliefs
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causal attribution
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explanation for why an event occurred
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control theory
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in an experimental study, group of subjects whose experience resembles that of the experimental group in all ways, except that they do not receive the key manipulation
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global assumptions
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fundamental beliefs that encompass all types of situations
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humanistic theories
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views that people strive to develop their innate potential for goodness and self-actualization; abnormality arises as a result of societal pressures to conform to unchosen dictates that clash with a person's self-actualization needs and from an inability to satisfy more basic needs, such as hunger
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existential theories
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views that uphold personal responsibility for discovering one's personal values and meanings in life and then living in accordance with them; people face existential anxiety due to awareness of their life's finitude and must overcome both this anxiety and obstacles to a life governed by the meanings they give to it, in order to achieve mental health and avoid maladaptive behavior
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self-actualization
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fulfillment of one's potential for love, creativity, and meaning
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client-centered therapy (CCT)
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Carl Rogers' form of psychotherapy, which consists of an equal relationship between therapist and client as the client searches for his or her inner self, receiving unconditional positive regard and an empathic understanding from the therapist
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interpersonal theories
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theories that attribute abnormal behavior to problems in interpersonal relationships
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prototypes
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images of the self and others in relation to the self formed from experiences with family during childhood
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family systems theories
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psychotherapy that focuses on the family, rather than the individual, as the source of problems; family therapists challenge communication style,s disrupt pathological family dynamics, and challenge defensive conceptions in order to harmonize relationships among all members and within each member
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social structural theories
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theories that focus on environmental and societal demands as causes of abnormal behavior
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social structural theories
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theories that focus on environmental and societal demands as causes of abnormal behavior
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scientific method
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systematic method of obtaining and evaluating information relevant to a problem
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hypothesis
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testable statement about two or more variables and the relationship between them
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null hypothesis
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alternative to a primary hypothesis, stating that there is no relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable
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variable
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measurable factor or characteristic that can vary within an individual, between individuals, or both
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dependent variable
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factor that an experimenter seeks to predict
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independent variable
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factor that is manipulated by an experimenter or used to predict the dependent variable
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operationalization
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specific manner in which one measures or manipulates variables in a study
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case studies
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in-depth analyses of individuals
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generalizability
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extent to which the results of a study generalize to, or inform us about, people other than those who were studied
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replication
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repetition of the same results from study to study
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correlational studies
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statistic used to indicate the degree of relationship between two variables
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continuous variable
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factor that is measures along a continuum (such as 0-100) rather than falling into a discrete category (such as "diagnosed with depression")
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group comparison study
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study that compares two or more distinct groups on a variable of interest
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cross-sectional
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type of research examining people at one point in time but not following them over time
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longitudinal
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type of research evaluating the same group(s) of people for an extended period of time
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correlation coefficient
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statistic used to indicate the degree of relationship between two variable
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statistical significance
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likelihood that a study's results have occurred only by chance
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third variable problem
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possibility that variables not measured in a study are the real cause of the relationship between the variables measured in the study
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sample
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group of people taken from a population of interest to participate in a study
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external validity
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extent to which a study's results can be generalized to phenomena in real life
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epidemiology
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study of the frequency and distribution of a disorder, or a group of disorders in a population
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prevalence
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proportion of the population that has a specific disorder at a given point or period in time
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incidence
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number of new cases of a specific disorder that develop during a specific period of time
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risk factors
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conditions or variables associated with a higher risk of having a disorder
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experimental studies
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studies in which the independent variables are directly manipulated and the effects on the dependent variable are examined
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human laboratory study
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experimental study involving human participants
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analogue study
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study that creates conditions in the laboratory meant to represent conditions in the real world
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internal validity
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extent to which all factors that could extraneously affect a study's results are controlled within a laboratory study
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control group
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cognitive theory that explains people's variance in behavior in certain domains terms of their beliefs that they can or cannot effectively control situations in that domain
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experimental group
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in an experimental study, group of participants that receives the key manipulation
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random assignment
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assignment of participants in an experiment to groups based on a random process
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demand characteristics
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factors in an experiment that suggest to participants how the experimenter would like them to behave
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therapy outcome study
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experimental study that assesses the effects of an intervention designed to reduce psychopathology in an experimental group, while performing no intervention or a different type of intervention on another group
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wait list control
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in a therapy outcome study, group of people that functions as a control group while an experimental group receives an intervention and then receives the intervention itself after a waiting period
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placebo control group
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in a therapy outcome study, group of people who treatment is an inactive substance (to compare with the effects of a drug) or a nontheory-based therapy providing social support (to compare with the effects of psychotherapy)
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double-blind experiment
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study in which both the researchers and the participants are unaware of which experimental condition the participants are in, in order to prevent demand effects
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efficacy
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in therapy outcome research, how well a therapy works in a real-world settings
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effectiveness
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in therapy outcome research, how well a therapy works in real-world settings
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single-case experimental design
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experimental design in which an individual or a small number of individuals is studied intensively; the individual is put through some sort of manipulation or intervention, and his or her behavior is examined before and after this manipulation to determine the effects
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ABAB (reversal) design
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type of experimental design in which an intervention is introduced, withdrawn, and then reinstated, and the behavior of a participant is examined on and off the treatment
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animal studies
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studies that attempt to test theories of psychopathology using animals
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meta-analysis
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statistical technique for summarizing the results across several studies
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assessment
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process of gathering information about a person's symptoms and their possible causes
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diagnosis
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label given to a set of symptoms that tend to occur together
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differential diagnosis
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determination of which of two or more possible diagnoses is most appropriate for a client
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acculturation
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extent to which a person identifies with his or her group of origin and its culture or with the mainstream dominant culture
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unstructured interview
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meeting between a clinician and a client or a client's associate(s) that consists of open-ended, general questions that are particular to each person interviewed
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structured interview
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meeting between a clinician and a client or a client's associate(s) in which the clinician asks questions that are standardized, written in advance, and asked of every client
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resistance
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in psychodynamic therapy, when a client finds it difficult or impossible to address certain material, the client's resistance signals an unconscious conflict, which the therapist then tries to interpret
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validity
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degree of correspondence between a measurement and the phenomenon under study
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face validity
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extent to which a test seems to measure a phenomenon on face value, or intuition
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content validity
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extent in which a measure assesses all the important aspects of a phenomenon that it purports to measure
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concurrent validity
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extent to which a test yields the same results as other measures of the same phenomenon
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predictive validity
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extent to which a measure accurately forecasts how a person will think, act, and feel in the future
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construct validity
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extent to which a test measures only what it is intended to measure
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reliability
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degree of consistency in a measurement- that is, the extent to which it yields accurate measurements of a phenomenon across several trials, across different populations, and in different forms
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test-retest reliability
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index of how consistent the results of a test are over time
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alternate form reliability
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extent to which a measure yields consistent results when presented in different forms
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internal reliability
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extent to which a measure yields similar results among its different parts as it measures a single phenomenon
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interrater reliability
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extent to which an observational measure yields similar results across different judges (also called interjudge reliability)
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neuropsychological tests
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tests of cognitive, sensory, and/or motor skills that attempt to differentiate people with deficits in these areas from normal subjects
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computerized tomography (CT)
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method of analyzing brain structure by passing narrow X-ray beams through a person's head from several angles to produce measurements from which a computer can construct and image of the brain
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positron-emission tomography (PET)
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method of localizing and measuring brain activity by detecting photons that result from the metabolization of an injected isotope
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magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
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method of measuring both brain structure and brain function through the construction of a magnetic field that affects hydrogen atoms in the brain, emitting signals that a computer then records and uses to produce a three-dimensional image of the brain
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intelligence tests
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tests that assess a person's intellectual strengths and weaknesses
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symptom questionnaire
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questionnaire that assesses what symptoms a person is experiencing
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personality inventories
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questionnaires that assess people's typical ways of thinking, feeling, and behavior; used to obtain information about people's well-being, self-concept, attitudes, and beliefs
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projective test
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presentation of an ambiguous stimulus, such as an inkblot, to a client, who then projects unconscious motives and issues onto the stimulus in her or her interpretation of its content
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behavioral observation
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method for assessing the frequency of a client's behaviors and the specific situations in which they occur
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self-monitoring
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method of assessment in which a client records the number of times per day that he or she engages in a specific behavior and the conditions surrounding the behavior
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syndrome
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set of symptoms that tend to occur together
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classification system
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set of syndromes and the rules for determining whether an individual's symptoms are part of one of these symptoms
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Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
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official manual for diagnosing mental disorders in the United States, containing a list of specific criteria for each disorder, how long a person's symptoms must be present to qualify for a diagnosis, and requirements that the symptoms interfere with daily functioning in order to be called disorders
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