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30 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Jahoda (1958) |
Defining normality. Suggested the Model of normality. This model suggests criteria for what might constitute normal psychological health (in contrast to abnormal psychological health). Deviation from these criteria would mean that the health of an individual is "abnormal". - The absence of mental illness - Realistic self-perception and contact with reality - A strong sense of identity and positive self-esteem - Autonomy and independence - Ability to maintain healthy interpersonal relationships - Ability to cope with stressful situations - Capacity for personal growth and self-actualisation |
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Szasz (1962) |
Argues that psychological normality and abnormality are culturally defined concepts,which are not based on objective criteria. Argues that it is not possible toidentiy the biological correlated of mental illness. Therefore, psychologicaldisorders should rather be seen as "problems of living". |
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Mitchel et al (2009) |
Examined the validity of diagnosis of major depressive disorder. Done by a meta-analysis (41 studies with 50 000 patients) of semi-structured interviews on depression. Results showed that general practitioners correctly identified depression in 47% of cases. 80% reliability in identifying healthy individuals. Accuracy of diagnosis improved over extended period of time. Concluded that they should see individuals at least twice before diagnosis. Strengths: - combine data from several studies - possible to generalise to large population Limitations: - May suffer from the problem of publication bias; data from many studies problems of interpretation of data - Different researches different definitions |
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Rosenhahn (1973) |
Wanted to see if psychiatrists could distinguish "abnormal" &"normal" behavior. This was done by a covert participant observationwith 8 people. The task was to follow the same instructions (acting as if theyhad psychological problems) at 12 psychiatric hospitals in the US. They were all admitted to psychiatric wards. 7 were diagnosed with schizophrenia, 1 with manic depression. In the hospital they behaved normally apart from taking notes & observing the staff. Took between 7 to 52 days before released. When they were released they were labelled as schizophrenic and there was nothing they could do to overcome the tag. Was very unethical, however it led to stricter,better diagnosis. Did not conceal the names of hospitals or staff. Issues with internalization; lack of normal interactions, deindividualisation, dependencency on doctors and nurses. Also talked about stickiness of diagnostic label. Enormous impact on psychology, questioned reliability of diagnosis. Not ethical, but justified since results could benefit others. |
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Cooper et al (1972) |
The aim of the study was to investigate reliability of diagnosis of depression and schizophrenia. The researchers asked American and British psychiatrists to diagnose patients by watching a number of videotyped clincial interviews.British psychiatrists diagnosed them as depressed twice as often. American psychiatrists diagosed the same patients to be suffering from schizophreniatwice as often. Indicated that the same cases did not result in similardiagnosis in the two countries. Points towards problems with reliability aswell as cultural differences in interpretation of symptoms and thus in diagnosis. |
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Okello & Ekblad (2006) |
Wanted to explore & describe how depressive symptoms are conceptualised and communicated by people in Uganda. Was done by individual interviews and focus group discussions. Participants were 29 adults and 25 adults receiving treatment for depression, 31 control group an 22 healers. Results showed that depression is related to thinking too much rather than sadness. Treatment: spend time with your family. If chronic: angry ancestral spirits and witchcrafts. Concluded that conceptualisation among the Baganda differs from Western model of depression in terms of cause and treatment. Help us understand differences between cultures. |
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Jaeger (1991) |
Examined the effect of client race and depression level on global and interpersonal evaluations by white therapists. 62 white therapists (23 male, 39 female) viewed a 3-minute segment of a scripted videotaped interaction between a clientand therapist. The client was either black or white female, enacting adepressed or nondepressed role. Each therapist viewed only one of the four conditions. As predicted, therapists held more negative evaluations of depressed versus non depressed clients, and the combination of being black and depressed led to the most negative evaluations. Unexpectedly, black nondepressed clients were not rated more negatively than white non depressedclients. |
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Langer & Abelson (1974) |
Investigated the role of confirmation bias in the attributions of reparative therapists.Clinicians representing two different schools of thought viewed a single videotaped interview between a man who had recently applied for a new job andone of the authors. Half of each group was told that the interviewee was a job applicant, half was told he was a patient. At the end of the video, all clinicians were asked to complete a questionnaire evaluating the interviewee.By the behavioral therapists the interviewee was described as well adjusted no matter the label. By the traditional therapists the interviewee was described as significantly more disturbed when he was labelled "patient".Behavioral therapists said "realistic", "unassertive","fairly sincere". Traditional therapists described the job applicantas "attractive", "candid & innovative", while as apatient the same person was descirbed as "tight, defensive","frightened of his own aggressive impulses". |
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Kendler (2006) |
Wanted to investigate if genetic influence is more important in women compared to men.15 493 Swedish twins were assessed with DSM-IV. It was a meta-analysis and thefindings showed a heritability rate higher in women than men, 46% compared to 29%. High ecological validity and high number of participants. |
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Weisman (1996) |
Found cross-cultural variations in 10 countries. A lifetime prevalence from 19% in Taiwan, 16% in Paris. Korea was twice as high as Taiwan although they're bothAsian cultures. Women were higher in all 10 countries. |
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Bolton (1999) |
Wanted to see if Western diagnosis of depression or PTSD was accepted in Rwanda(cross-cultural valdiity). Done by 3 interviews with survivors & then content analysis. 40 participants. Results showed 2 disorders were identified(Guahahamuka & Agahinda gakabije). Interviews were then done with knowledgeable people (7) that confirmed symptoms & disorders. They then looked for similarities in DSM & local symptoms and applied local symptomsas questionnaire. New questionnaires were used when interviewing 368 people.18% diagnosed as depressed, 42% Agahinda. Showed how an emic approach is needed in order to reach cross-cultural validity. Process highly systematic, making use of data triangulation to strengthen the credibility of the findings. Main issue: fails to recognise that cultures are dynamic, complex social constructs which defy easy definition or measurement. Rural communities in Rwanda, could be direct result of experience in genocide. |
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Nolen & Hoeksema (2001) |
Women are no more likely to seek help for depression than men |
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McCabe (2001) |
Found that people who had a distorted body image still estimated their weight accurately. Because anorexics weigh themselves a lot. Also found that anorexics overestimate their own body and show a very thin body as their ideal. |
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Moore et al (2009) |
Recruited a sample from a health maintenance organizations 3700 women and 1800 men (age 18-35). Did a survey by mail or online. Results showed that men are more likely to report overeating. Women are more likely to endorse loss of control when eating and reported checking body, fasting, vomiting, avoidance, binge eating. A minority of men reported eating disorder. |
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Kuboki (1988) |
Japan prevalence of anorexia. Did a survey. Female participants from 732 hospitals and general population. Did the same survey in 1992 and showed a higher prevalence. Related to modernization of Japan and globalisation of the world. |
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Coppen (1967) |
Serotonin hypothesis. Suggests that depression is caused by low levels of serotonin. A neurotransmitter produced in specific neurons in the brain and called "serotegenic neurons" because they produce serotonin. SSRIs can be used to prevent the repute of serotonin which increased the amount of it in the synaptic gap. Improve mood. |
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Beck (1967) |
Meta-analysis of Beck's cognitive therapy for depression. 28 studies were identifies that used a common outcome measure of depression, and comparisons of cognitive therapy with other therapeutic modalities were made. The results document agreater degree of change for cognitive therapy compared to a waiting list orno-treatment control, pharmacotherapy, behavior therapy, and otherpsychotherapies. The degree of change associated with cognitive therapy was not significantly related to the length of therapy or the proportion of women in the studies, and a lack of adequate representativenesss of various age groups. Depressogenic schemas and negative thoughts. These schemas cause avulnerability to stressors. Difficult to define negative thinking. |
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Boury et al (2001) |
Investigated Beck's theory and found a significant correlation between negative automaticthoughts and severity of depression. Study also showed duration of depression was influenced by the frequency of negative cognitions. Researchers argues itis difficult to determine whether cognitive distortions caused depression or if depression resulted in cognitive distortions. |
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Brown & Harris (1978) |
Investigated what factors play a role in the onset of depression in women. Wanted to linkdepression to social factors and stressful life-events. 458 women in South London were surveyed on their daily life and depressive episodes. Researchers focused on important biographical details - difficulties. Results showed thatthere was a large effect of social class as measured by the occupations of thewomen's husbands on development of depression in women with children. Working class women with children were 4 times more likely to develop depression than middle-class women with children. 8% of the women had become clinically depressed in the previous year. 33 of these had experienced an adverse lifeevent. Only 30% of women who did not become depressed suffered from such anadversity. Only 4 out of the 37 women who became depressed had not experiencedany adversity. Protective factors (relationship husband), vulnerability (risk of depression, stressful life events), provoking agents (stressors such asgrief & hopelessness). |
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Dutton (2009) |
Supported Weisman. Difference in stress, standards in living, reporting biases in different cultures. |
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Elkin et al (1989) |
280 patients diagnosed with depression were randomly assigned to either anti-depressant drug plus the normal clinical management, a placebo plus the normal clinical management, CBT, or IPT. Treatment ran for 16 weeks & patients were assessed at the start, after six weeks and after 18 months. Results showed a reduction of depressive symptoms of over 50% in therapy groups and in the drug group. Only 29% recovered in the placebo group. No difference in effectiveness of CBT, IPT or anti-depressant. Indicated that psychotherapy might be useful. Since it was only 50% it does not guarantee recovery for all participants. |
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Neale et al (2011) |
Meta-analysis psychotherapy. 25% relapse rate, and drugs 42% relapse. |
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Sachheim et al (2001) |
Improve but relapse. Criticise the heavy use of medication on the grounds that it is not well known how it affects the brain long term. |
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George et al (2010) |
Lab experiment. TMS (an alternative to ECT with not as severe side effects). 190 patients with depression randomly assigned to two groups. TMS or sham TMS for 37 minutes once a day for 3 weeks. 14% of group recovered compared to 5% of placebo group. Also low side effects, headache, eye twitching. Second phase all got TMS 30% recovered. |
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Ellis |
Focused on the role of emotion. Helps identify faulty thinking patterns. Direct therapy. People make basic irrational assumptions about themselves. Did role play situations & imagine how they behave in self-defeating ways. Or shame attaching exercises. Asks client to take risks which are non-threatening. Realises that outcome is not harmful. |
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Dobson (1989) |
Kinetic experiments. Proteins are are needed to carry out our biological functions.Under some conditions the protein could misfiled and snag surrounding normalproteins, which then tangles and stick together in clumps. Leading to plaqueslong seen in the brains of Alzheimer's sufferers. The plaques could not bemoved but the first clumps can. Leading to early diagnoses and drug development. |
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Lyons (1991) |
70 Rational-Emotive Therapy studies meta-analysed. A total of 236 comparisons of RET, Cognitive Behaviour Therapy. Behaviour therapy and other psychotherapies examined. Receiving RET showed significant improvement. Related to therapist experience and to duration of therapy. Comparisons with high internal validity had higher effect sizes. RET effective. Lack of follow-up data. |
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McDermut (2001) |
Meta-analysis of effectiveness of group psychotherapy in treatment of depression. 45 out of 48 studies showed statistically significant reductions in depressive symptoms after group psychotherapy. No difference between group and individual therapy. CBT more effective than psychodynamic therapy. |
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Yalom (2005) |
One of the fathers of group therapy. Highly problematic to collect data for group therapy. As group dynamic presents so many more variables than individual therapy. Study did not include severely depressed and suicidal patients. |
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Jaeger (2002) |
A series of 10 silhouettes was shown to 1751 medical and nursing students in 12 nations. Investigated body-dissatisfaction. The most extreme body dissatisfaction was found in northern Mediterranean countries, followed by European countries. Remarkable differences between body dissatisfaction between different cultures. |
