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139 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Intelligence
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problem-solving skills and the ability to learn from and adapt to everyday experiences. Includes: problem solving ability, verbal ability, social competence (wisdom)
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developmental perspective + intelligence
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intelligence is multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, and has interindividual variability.
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2 approaches to intelligence
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psychometric approach and cognitive structural approach
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Psychometric intelligence
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traditional intelligence measurement approach, which measures intelligence as performance on standardized tests
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Cognitive structural intelligence
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measures intelligence according to how people conceptualize and solve problems rather than score on tests
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Spearman's g
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general mental ability that can be applied to any task; performance should be roughly similar across tasks
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Spearman's special factors s
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factors that vary across tasks and are less predictive of performance
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Spearman's factor analysis
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Spearman used factor analysis, which makes for easy manipulation. The way he did his analysis led to there being a g that correlated with everything and multiple s factors that didn't correlate as much
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Thurstone's primary mental abilities
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Thurstone said that there wasn't a single G, but instead that there were 7 primary mental abilities. Argued that the abilities were uncorrelated and he used the same data set as spearman. Included: word fluency/how many words can you think of that start with D, verbal comprehension/meaning, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numeric ability, inductive reasoning/problem solving, verbal memory/word list recall
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2 components that subsume thurstone's mental abilities
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fluid intelligence (Gf) and crystallized intelligence (Gc)
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Fluid intelligence (Gf)
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The ability to process information, reason abstractly, and solve novel problems and draw inferences. WM is highly related to Gf and it declines with age
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Crystallized intelligence (Gc)
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Accumulated knowledge and verbal comprehension. includes semantic knowledge and remains stable with age
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Cross-sectional studies + intelligence
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Early studies in the 30's-50's showed that declines began early - around age 20 - and steadily continued across the lifespan. OAs showed steeper rates of decline on performance on speed related tasks in comparison to verbal comprehension. With unlimited time on speed tasks, OAs still did worse. The general conclusion was that declines start fairly early and you do worse with age.
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longitudinal studies + intelligence
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No meaningful decline until age 50, according to tests done on army men
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Schwartzman army men study
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260 army men were tested during WW2 and then again, 40 years later. Results showed a slight decline in scores under normal testing conditions, but slight gains in some tests when given twice the amount of time. (decline in speed-related and gain in verbal)
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Longitudinal v. cross-sectional
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longitudinal - stable from 20 to 60, slight decline after 70, terminal drop; cross-sectional - peak in verbal around 35 and steep decline after, peak in speed around 25 and steep decline after
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Why are there differences between longitudinal and cross-sectional?
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cohort effects and selective dropout
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cohort effects
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educational differences, etc. so, cross-sectional makes the declines look worse. Each subsequent cohort does better on speed related and worse when its knowledge based
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selective dropout
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longitudinal studies paint an optimisitc picture because people who are unhealthy or believe they are doing poorly drop out and you only have the data of people who do well left
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Flynn effect
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the average IQ scores have increased dramatically in the last century - the avg 20 year old in the 1990s scores about 15 pts higher than the 1940s
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Reasons for flynn effect
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fluid intelligence, difference in everyday life because everything is fast paced and techonology used means the types of work people do are different, better healthcare and nutrition, and higher education attainment
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Seattle Longitudinal Study
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Started in 1956. Has a cross-sequential design with a new wave every 7 years. had 500 people in the original sample, but now has over 5000 people.
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SLS advantages and disadvantages
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adv - you can separate cohort differences from developmental change. dis- complex and incredibly expensive
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SLS + characteristics of people who show decline
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poor health, understimulating lifestyle
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SLS + characteristics of people who maintain/gain
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above average SES, intact marriages, intellectually capable spouses, active lifestyles
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Cognitive structural approach
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Doesn't look at correct and incorrect answers, but instead how people conceptualize and reason through problems.
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Piaget's Theory
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The process of adjusting to the demands of the environmental requires two types of adaptation - assimilation and accommodation.
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Assimilation
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interpreting new information in light of existing models of the world
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Accommodation
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existing structures are modified to account for new situations
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Piaget's formal operational stage
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In the formal operational stage, age 11+, involves a lot of hypothesis testing, but many adults do not perform well on formal operation problems
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Hypothesis testing
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generate hypotheses and then systematically test them to determine one, unambiguous outcome (pendulum problem)
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Pendulum problem
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Piaget laid out strings and weights for kids to figure out what to do. Kids that were younger were random, but older kids (in the formal op stage) were systematic in their testing - they tested weight + short string, weight + longer string, weight + longest string....Many adults do not do this. Instead, they use short cuts and do not try every option.
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Characteristics of real life problems
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real life problems are ill-defined, contain contradiction and ambiguity
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Reigel + formal operations
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formal operations do not apply to many situations because real life problems are ill-defines, adults often appear to accept several possibilites, and adults often limit their thinking to realisitic options
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Post-formal thought involves understanding...
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the correct answer varies from situation to situation, solutions must be realistic to be reasonable, ambiguity and contradition are the rule rather than the exception, and dialectic reasons (compromise)
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Testing postformal thinking
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Adults age 26 to 89 were presented with hypothetical problems that were either real life or abstract problems and they asked participants to reason through the problems and vocalize them.
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YA v. OA + postformal thinking
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YAs were more likely to solve both types of problems by adopting a formal operation mode of thinking (ie they wanted to find a correct, specific answer) whereas OAs were more likely to use relativistic or dislectic reasoning with real life problems rather than abstract problems (so correct answer when abstract, but post formal when real life)
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Berlin Wisdom Paradigm
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expert-level knowledge and judgment in the fundamental pragmatics of life
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Baltes' 5 berlin wisdom criteria
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rich factual knowledge about life, rich procedural knowledge about life, life-span contextualism, value relativism, and recognition and management of uncertainty
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rich factual knowledge about life
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accumulated through actual study and life experience
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rich procedural knowledge about life
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the idea that certain things should occur at certain times (like when is a good time to give someone advice) and understanding the timing of the course of a person's life and then understanding what would be best for them
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Life-span contextualism
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different contexts for different people will lead to different advice being more/less useful
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value relativism
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people have different sets of values/morals/beliefs
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recognition and management of uncertainty
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you might come to a conclusion at one point, but that conclusion may change. your response is not concrete; it changes according to how things change
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Studying Wisdom
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studied through advice giving paradigms, where people were given a scenario and then asked to give advice to a person in the scenario. Judges were trained to evaluate responses according to Baltes' 5 criteria
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Ages differences in Baltes' wisdom paradigm
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You are low in wisdom early on in life, but as you get to age 24 or 25, wisdom tends to level off. However, there was a lot of variability. Conluded that older does not necessarily mean wiser, but the responses were very brief so your wiseness score probably went up just by giving longer responses
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Grossmann's wisdom paradigm
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Used context-rich social conflict vignettes that involved intergroup conflicts (between ethinic and tribal groups) and interpersonal conflicts (like the death of a family member + paying for burial)
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Grossmann paradigm results
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OAs were wiser than YAs - they had more wise responses and more OAs were in the top 20% of scores
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Characteristics of wise individuals
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intelligence, personality (more open to experience and less egotistical = more wise), expertise (with difficult life events), professional experience (like judges), and tendency to reflect
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Everyday Problem Solving
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asks questions about everyday life in an instrumental context
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EPS + practical problem measurement
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instrumental problems - peaks in midlife; ill-defined problems - inprovement to old age
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EPS + well-structured challenges
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performance is related to traditional psychometric abilities - knowledge, reasoning, WM, speed of processing
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EPS + social problems
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performance is related to crystallized intelligence (OAs do the same or better than YA)
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EPS Inventory
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Gave scenarios and choices on a scale of 1-5 and P's would pick how likely they would do the response. Each response reflected a different type of problem solving - problem focus, cognitive problem, emotion passive, emotion avoid ant
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EPS problem solving
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directly fixing the problem; "ill replace what I broke"
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EPS cognitive analysis of problem
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thinking about the problem; "I didn't mean to break it"
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EPS passive emotion
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passively doing something to get around the emotion, like getting someone to help you replace the thing so that you don't have to deal with confrontation
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EPS avoidant thinking and denial emotion
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avoid the situation completely to avoid possible negative emotions
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EPS inventory examination + results
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For instrumental problems (like those between ethnic groups), OAs and YAs used problem solving and then cognitive analysis the most. For interpersonal problems, OAs are much more likely to do something emotion focused to deal with emotional problems
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EPS inventory + context of the problem
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YA are more likely to use a similar strategy across varying problem solving contexts bc they are always trying to fix the problem. OAs are more likely to vary their strategy - emotion focus for interpersonal problems and problem focus for instrumental problems.
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Can cognitive declines be minimized?
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yes - physical exercise, brain exercise/training
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Early work on physical activity
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Used pre-existing groups of OAs who exercised vigorously or not at all and tested them on tests of WM, RT + reasoning, visual attention, inhibition, and inductive reasoning. OAs who exercised vigorously did much better on all tasks, but there could be a 3rd variable.
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How current studies on physical activity differ from early work
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Current studies do not use pre-existing groups but instead they assign people to a training intervention (or use waitlist control)
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Waitlist control
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Since it is unethical to not give people a beneficial treatment, you get people in and do all the tests and then say they're on a "wait list" and let them live their lives as they normally would.
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Aerobic/cardiovascular fitness
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like dance class - to get people's heart rate up. produces strongest effects and largest improvements for tasks involving executive cotrol in OAs (WM)
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Walking
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not as intense, so most people can do it, but you have to speed walk and still make it intensive to get the heart rate up. benefits similar to aerobic/cardio
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Walking + MCI
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participants walked 2 times a week for 6 months and this kept MCI people stable pretest and posttest
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Strength training/yoga
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Increased cognitive ability even with a month's intervention. Led to 2nd strongest improvements (and the improvements were even better when you did strength training with aerobic)
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Tai chi
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In china, the benefits were shown to be as strong as aerobic, but this was not replicated elsewhere. In the US, it's the least effective, with balance/coordination
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coordination/balance training
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exercises to strengthen the core. OAs who did balance training multiple times a week for a year had improved cognition because they were not worried about falling, so it freed up cognitive resources. Least effective.
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Does length of intervention matter?
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yes. 1-3m is moderate, 4-6m builds a reserve, >6 improves. Also, short sessions (<30min) have no effect on cognition
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Aerobic fitness + brain
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Increases level of brain-dervied neurotrophic factor - which supports the growth of new neurons; increased brain matter + interior hippocampus volume; prevents decline in brain structures; decreased frontal lobe activity - so tasks are being processes more efficiently.
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Use it or lose it
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the idea that if you engage in cognitive activities, you can fight cognitive decline
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Use it or lose it + cross-sectional studies
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Asked people about their reading habits and compared OAs and YAs on variables such as vocabulary and semantic knowledge. OAs (and YAs) who read more stimulating material did better.
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Victoria Longitudinal Study
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Correlational study with MA & OA (55-86) who are retested every 3 years with new cohorts added every 6 years. Measures included fact, word & story recall, vocab, word fluency, reading comprehension, WM, speed measures, health & personality measures.
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Victoria LS findings
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When MAs and OAs participate in intellectually engaging activities, this buffers against cognitive decline. less cognitive engagement lowers cognitive ability (across cohorts)
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Stine-Morrow use it or lose it.
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random assignment to experiment or waitlist control. people in the experimental group were signed up to participate in problem solving tasks in small groups for 20 minutes and that there would be a tournament after 20 weeks. Comparing pre and post test results on speed, inductive reasoning and found benefits for all plus divergent thinking. BUT, no change in WM
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Can you prevent or slow the progression or dementia?
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People who had MCI participated in activities like reading, playing board games, and learning to play musical instruments twice a week and this lowered the risk of developing dementia, even after controlling for education, chronic health, and baseline cognitive status.
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dementia + catholic priests
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longitudinal study of catholic priests found that those priests who read books and did crossword puzzles were 47% less likely to develop AD in comparison to priests who didnt.
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Salthouse's 3 critical issues
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random assignment, control of treatment, longterm monitoring of outcome variables (do the results stay years later?)
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Additional issues in cognitive training
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it is difficult to isolate only cognitive activity and many interventions also involve social interaction and/or physical activity
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Cognitive training + married couples
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married couples either got no training, trained individually, or trained as couples for 10 sessions over 4-5 weeks - involved reasoning task + learning strategies with practical exercises relevant to everyday life. Results had gains that remained 3 months after intervention but if they were trained collaboratively, the gains only worked when they were tested collaboratively.
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Major limitation of cognitive training
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A lot of times, it is specific to a particular domain and won't generalize to others and also doesn't always translate to every day function
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Can OAs train themselves?
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OAs who used computer assisted training found improvements on performance in STM, speed tasks, learning verbal material, and lowered inteference & the effects lasted for 5 months after training
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Cautions to interpretations of cognitive training
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training may help people with lower education levels more than those with higher education levels because there is more room from growth, impact of mental exercise may differ at different points in the life span, and it may take years to accrue the benefits.
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How do we determine what emotion we feel?
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state of physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal of environment
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Emotional experience in adulthood
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from age 25-75, positive emotion increases and negative emotion slightly decreases
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Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
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people have 2 goals - to seek information and to regulate emotion and get gratification. As you age, you put more emphasis on the second goal because of future time perspective
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Future Time Perspective
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how much time you feel you have left. if you have little time, you want to fulfill emotional goals; if you have a lot of time, you want to fulfill information seeking goals.
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SST + partner preference studies.
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P's are told to imagine they have 30 minutes of free time to spend with a person - family member, aquaintence, or author of a good book - who would you want to interact with? OAs pick family; YAs pick equally. Then, imagine you are about to move across the country. Both OA and YA pick family
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Lengthen future time perspective
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Imagine there has been a break through in medicine that will ensure that you will live for 20 more years in good health. Results show that OAs and YAs are the same
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SST + everyday partner preference
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OAs reduce the amount of time they spend with aquaintences and have more close, emotionally fulfilling social interactions.
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SST + advertising preferences
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Participants were shown ads with emotionally meaningful rewards or knowledge/info and asked which ones they preferred. OAs tended to prefer emotional ads. Then, when asked to imagine they had 20 years to live and do the same task, age differences were eliminated. When asked which products/slogans they remembered, OAs remembered more emotional ones.
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Positivity effect
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People with a limited future time perspective should maximize positive emotional experiences and minimize negative emotional experiences (ie OAs should pay attention to and remember more positive info)
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Emotion + dot probe studies
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flashed a happy or sad face and then a dot behind one of the faces and calculated RT. OAs were significantly faster if the dot appeared behind the happy face (bc they were already paying attention to it) and YAs don't show as strong of a bias
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emotion + ERP studies
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fixation, face, then stimuli while wearing an ERP helmet - looking for how much people react. YAs react equally to all emotion and OAs react less to anger.
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emotion + eye tracking
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OAs and YAs view pairs of synthetic faces - one that is emotional and one that is nonemotional - and eye tracking is done. OAs preferred pos to neutral to neg faces
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emotion + memory for experienced events
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Had P's come into lab and complete 4 everyday situations and 4 imagined situations. Next day, they rated their memories for the events - real or imagined. 3 weeks later, they were asked if things were real or imagined. OAs had more false memories and recalled more information related to their thoughts and feelins than about perceptual/contextual goals (good bc of goals or bad bc you can't inhibit
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emotion + autobiographical recall
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OAs recalled more positive info when asked to recall autobiographical memories, but only when asked to focus on emotional memories. When asked for accurate autobiographical, emotional memories, OAs bring up more negative memories.
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emotion + storytelling study
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P's age 23-83 were asked to read passages about a social interaction from a novel that had both emotional and neutral content and asked to recall the story 1 hour later. YAs remembered more information overall but OAs remembered a higher proportion of emotional information
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emotion + memory for images
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For memory for images, YA and MA remember positive and negative equally and more than neutral while OAs remember positive a lot more than negative than neutral. However, there are some circumstances in which you can't help but look at the negative.
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emotion + arousal of images
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studies changed the nature of negative images such that they were either high or low arousal. YA and OA both recalled the central elements more than peripheral elements, but when instructed to attend to everything, OAs could not move their attention away (bc they couldn't inhibit)
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emotion regulation
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if OAs can't avoid negative information, they must regulate their emotions somehow to stay positive. OAs are more succesful at mood repair bc for them, it is more automatic
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emotion induction + regulation
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when shown a really emotional movie, OAs are better at mood pair. When doing an n-back task with an on-going task, YAs did worse on n-back task because mood regulation was not as automatic for them.
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stereotype + card sort task
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When given cards with traits and asked to make piles to come up with different types of peopple, OAs have more categories and more complex stereotypes of other OAs than YAs
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golden ager OA
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positive - active, sociable, independent
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perfect grandparent OA
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positive - supportive, wise, generous
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john wayne conservative OA
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positive - patriotic, conservative, proud
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severely impaired OA
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slow thinking, feeble
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despondent OA
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lonely, hopeless, neglected
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curmudgen OA
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demanding, stubborn, bitter
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recluse OA
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demanding, stubborn, bitter
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explicit stereotype measures
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asking directly and card sort task
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implicit stereotype measures
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IAT and word stem completion
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stereotypes + how you ask the question
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when asked about OAs in general, people reported more negative views. when asked to think about OAs they know, people reported more positive views
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stereotypes + scrambled sentences + behavior
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Ps unscrambled sentences that were either stereotyped or neutral and then timed how long it takes the participant to walk to the elevator. P's with the stereotype walked slower
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stereotypes + OA memory cross-culturally
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YA and OA in the american, american deaf, and chinese culture completed memory tests Results showed that memory was best for chinese OA, then deaf OA, then american OA (and no sig differences between chinese OA and YA)
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stereotypes + OA memory with priming
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Levy primed participants with positive or negative stereotypes and then measured their performance on memory tasks. Performance improved with a positive prime and decreased with a negative prime
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stereotype threat
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when in an evaluative situation, the knowledge that you may be judged on the basis of a stereotype maybe lead to anxiety, which will disrupt performance
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age stereotype threat salience + memory
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Told OAs and YAs they were either performing a memory test or a test of knowledge. Age differences were eliminated when it was a test of knowledge
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age stereotype threat activation + memory
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had P's read an article that was positive or negative about aging memory, then measured stereotype activation, then measured recall ability. Results showed that stereotype threat existed and that P's in the negative condition had lower recall
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Negative stereotypes influence a wide range of outcomes
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memory, CV responses to stress, end of life decision making, and longevity
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implicit theories of memory
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general beliefs about memory as they apply to all people (similar to stereotypes). Generally, people believe there is decline with age, but the pattern of change varies depending on the type of memory
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memory beliefs + stereotypes
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had traits - relevant positive traits, relevant negative traits, irrelevant positive trains, and irrelevant negative traits about OAs. Results showed that positive stereotypes lead to more positive beliefs and relevant traits are important as well.
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self-referent beliefs about memory
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belief about your own abilities; self-efficacy
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When asked to rate their own memory performance...
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better than average effect for someone in the same age group, but OAs think that they perform poorly when compared to all age groups
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causal attribution about memory
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beliefs about the cause of memory performance after completion
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what are self-efficacy judgements based on?
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knowledge of past experiences, verbal feedback from others, and physiological arousal/mood states
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goal-setting study part 1
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YA and OA had to memorize a 24 item shopping list 1/2 randomly assigned to set their own goals + high/low self eft was measured. goal setting helped bc OAs who theought they has little control set goals and reached them and raised seld eff
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goal setting study part 2
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experimenters set goals for shopping list and gave feed back (none, encouraging, or objective) goals helped and p's with objective feedback showed improvement but those with encouraging feedback showed more improvement
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goal setting study part 3
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manipulated the challenge of the goal - either 5 or 15 more to remember. both conditions improved memory but self eff was only improved in the 5 confition because OAs saw improvement/progress
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interviews about memory control beliefs
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YA use mnemonic strategies and OAs use use it or lose it to achieve memory contra, but both believe use it or lose it is more effective over the life span
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receptive communication difficulties
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OAs aren't understanding - difficultly understanding in noisy situations and losing track of conversation/who said what. linear declines around age 50 bc that's when hearing declines
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expressive communication difficulties
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decrease in the use of difficult words, dominating conversation, speaking slowly. later, more gradual decline around age 75
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communicative predicament of aging model
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age cues lead to activation of stereotypes which lead to modified speech which lead to OAs reacting in a stereotypical way which reinforces the stereotype
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horhota's study
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showed pos or neg pictures of helen then participants were supposed to describe one of 9 images to helen and they got feedback about ive but helen's performance. speech was coded as being either affirming or overaccomadative. first instance of speech was almost always affirmative but a directive tone was used at least once by 76% of participants - usually when helen got an answer wrong. nurturing tone used by 20% of participants (who were female + MA/OA)
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elderspeak + nursing homes
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elderspeak is very prevalent in nursing homes because the situation suggests negative stereotypes - if you're in a nursing home, you must be unwell. staff behaviors reinforce OA's incompetence. some studies find that OAs are less hard on their judgments of elderspeak over time.
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elderspeak + map routes
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prerecorded speakers described a map and participants had to draw the route. they manipulated the speaker so that he used short or complex sentences and the simple sentences helped OAs. manipulated prosody and it hurt OAs.
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pros and cons of elderspeak
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good because it makes things simpler and easier to process - helped with WM; bad because it makes OAs feel patronized and doesn't help with comprehension
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