A & P Ii Lecture Cards

Front 1

Blood:

Back 1

A specialized form of CT (liquid)

Derived from Mesoderm cells,
Average adult has 5 liters of blood

Primary functions:
>Internal transport >Regulation of body's internal environment
>Protection of body from some diseases

**very good in diagnosis of many diseases*
Composed of 2 major components: Plasma & Blood cells

Front 2

Chemical Analysis of Plasma:

Back 2

Over 90% of plasma is water,

7%- plasma proteins:
>1st- Albumin (for osmosis),
>2nd- Globulins- (carrier molecules and antibodies),
>3rd- Fibrinogen- (for clotting),
>Last- less than 1%- other proteins (i.e. hormones)

Remaining 1.5%- other solutes- i.e. Electrolytes (Na, Cl, K, Ca, etc.), Organic Nutrients (Glucose, Amino Acids, etc.), Gases (O2, CO ), Vitamins (Vit B, Vit C, etc.), Waste chemicals (urea and others)

Front 3

Pic- What is the Makeup of Plasma?:

Back 3

Front 4

Blood Cells:

Back 4

Found elements of blood,
created from one common Stem cell within the Red Bone Marrow,
RBC- Hb carries O2, CO2, and sometimes CO, lives about 100 days,
Dead RBC removed by Spleen,

Front 5

Red Blood Cells (RBC):

Back 5

A biconcave disc w/no cell organelles
Each RBC contains 250 million Hemoglobin proteins
A hempglobin proteins has four proteins chains linked together and for heme group
Heme group contains- C, H, O, N, and Fe- used to carry the O & CO

Front 6

White Blood Cells (WBC):

Back 6

Fights Infection
>Neutrophil- 1st most common- will phagocytize bacteria plus other cells
>Lymphocyte- 2nd most common- produces immune proteins
>Monocytes- 3rd most common- phagocytize cells plus clean up
>Eosinophil- 4th most common- used against allergy and worms
>Basophil- 5th most common- produces Histamine and Heparin

a. elevation of Neutrophils indicate a Bacteria infection.
b. elevations of Lymphocytes indicate a viral infection

Front 7

Platelets:

Back 7

Platelets are used in blood clotting process
Smallest of all blood cells
Once activated, they will stick to each other and to Fibrin fibers

Front 8

Blood Clotting:

Back 8

Neurological Vasospasm- sudden cur of superficial tissue, resulting in short-lived vasospasm
Will reduce the bleeding for a short time and allow the other clotting mechanisms a chance to form a clot

Front 9

Blood Clotting Protein Cascade:

Back 9

Will convert Firbrinogen to Fibrin

Extrinsic pathway- triggered by Trauma (tissue factor)
Intrinsic pathway- triggered by exposure to collagen,

**Either will activate the common pathway

Front 10

Platelet Plug:

Back 10

Platelets are triggered by:

1. trauma to platelet directly
2. exposure to collage
3. exposure to PF3 platelet factor

Front 11

Blood Typing:

Back 11

Bloods RBC's have immune markers to ID the person's blood type and the person's plasma

>contains Ab against the presences of different RBC's types

Patient Blood Types:
A A & O,
B B & O
AB AB, A, B & O (universal receiver)
O only O (universal donor),

*Rh factor is an additional RBC marker

Front 12

Pic- What do you know about Blood Typing?:

Back 12

Front 13

Heart:

Back 13

Human Heart- 4 chamber pump, arranged into 2-sided pump (right & left),
>starts pumping early in embryological life and can continue up to a century,
>divided into a right & left sides, contains 2 chambers (one atrium & ventricle),
>pumps 5 liter/min, 3,600 gallons daily
>located within the Middle Mediastinum, surrounded by Pericardium (double membrane bag),
>Wall of heart has 3 major layers: Epicardium (outermost), Myocardium (contains heart muscle), & Endocardium (innermost)

Front 14

Pic- What are the Layers of Heart Wall?:

Back 14

Heart Wall

Front 15

Pic- What are the Layers of Heart wall?:

Back 15

Front 16

Cardiovascular System- General:

Back 16

A closed double circulatory system

Front 17

Flow of Blood into and out of Human Heart:

Back 17

1. Venous blood returns to the heart from the body by SUPERIOR Vena Cava (head, neck and arms) and INFERIOR Vena Cava (lower body) to the Right side of heart- RIGHT ATRIUM
2. Blood is then pumped from RIGHT ATRIUM through TRICUSPID VALVE, down into RIGHT VENTRICLE
3. Blood is then pumped up out of RIGHT VENTRICLE through PULMONARY SEMILUNAR VALVE and into PULMONARY TRUNK and towards the lungs for oxygenation
4. Blood, now oxygenated, returns to the Left side of heart- by way of PULMONARY VEINS and pumps blood into LEFT ATRIUM
5. Blood is pumped from LEFT ATRIUM through BICUSPID VALVE (MITRAL VALVE) down into LEFT VENTRICLE
6. Blood is pumped up out of LEFT VENTRICLE through the AORTIC SEMILUNAR VALVE and into AORTA
7. Blood will go to the body to provide oxygenation to all cells and return back to Right side of heart by Vena Cavas, to start the process again

Front 18

Pic- What is the Flow of Blood through the Heart?

Back 18

Front 19

Pic- What is the Flow of Blood through the Heart?:

Back 19

Front 20

Heart Valves:

Back 20

Human Heart contains 4 heart valves
Each guarding the exit of each chamber to prevent the backflow of blood
Valves are attached to Heart's Fibrous Skeleton (between atriums and ventricles)
Valves are divided into 2 types:

Cuspid Valves- Bicuspid (left) & Tricuspis (right), guards the exit from the Atriums
-operates because of the Chorae Tendinaee and Papillary muscles, help prevent valves forom failing (failure- prolapsed valve),

Semilunar Valves- Aortic (left) & Pulmonary (right), guards the exit of the ventricles
-operates because of the wegith of the blood, inflates the three cup-like structures of semilunar valve

Front 21

Pic- What are the valves of the Heart?

Back 21

Heart Valve

Front 22

The Coronary Arteries of the Heart:

Back 22

Feeds the heart and especially the heart muscle
Arise and travel across the surface mostly within Sulci (grooves)

Main Sulci- Coronary Sulci

Arterial System is divided into 2 main parts:
1). arising form Righ Coronary Artery and
2). from Left Coronary Artery,

*The two are interconnected by anastomses

Front 23

Pic- What are that Coronary Arteries?:

Back 23

Anterior View of Coronary Arteries

Front 24

Pic- What are the Coronary Arteries?:

Back 24

Posterior View of Coronary Arteries

Front 25

Right Coronary Artery(RCA) path:

Back 25

1. Arises from the right side of the Aorta, just above the Aortic Semilunar Valve,
2. Travels in the right side of the Coronary Sulcus, (inferior to the Right Auricle on anterior surface of heart, moving towards right of heart)
3. At right margin, the Marginal Branch is given off that travels inferior on surface of Right Ventricle
4. The remainder of the RCA travels to posterior surface of heart, where it will give rise to the Posterior Interverticular Artery (or Posterior Descending) which will travel down within the Posterior Intervertiricular Sulcus (btw the 2 ventricles)
5. RCA will continue within the coronary sulcus just after the Coronary Sinus where the RCA will anastomse with the remains of the LCA

Front 26

Left Coronary Artery (LCA) path:

Back 26

1. Arises from the left side of the Aorta, above the Aortic Semilunar Valve
2. Travels behind the Pulmonary Trunk to the edge of the Left Auricle
3. Divides into 2 branches:
a).The Anterior Interverticular Artery (or Anerior Decending) will run straight down the front of the heart within the Anterior Interverticular Sulcus then will anastomse at Apec of Heart with Posterior Decending Artery, b). The Circumflex Branch will travel around to the back of the heart and will give rise to the Posterior Ventricular Artery, which will run inferior on the posterior surface,
4. Circumflex Branch will continue within the left side of coronary sulcus before anastomsing with RCA just after Coronary Sinus

Front 27

Cardiac Veins:

Back 27

Return the blood from the Heart wall to the Right Atrium,
Arise on the surface of the heart near Coronary Arteries and drain toward the Coronary Sulcus
Once in sulcus, all venous blood empties into the Coronary Sinus which empties into the Right Atrium
1). Great Cardiac Vein- within the Anterior Intervertricular Sulcus next to the Anterior Descending Artery
2). Middle Cardiac Vein- within the Posterior Intervertricular Sulcus next to the Posterior Descending Artery

Front 28

Cardiac Conduction System:

Back 28

Used to create rhythmical beating of the four different chambers, and provide the maximum cardiac efficiency,
Operated by groups of Autorhythmic cells (specialized Cardiac muscle),
Contraction signal is passed from structure-to-structure, in order to pump blood in the proper order
1). SA (sinoatrial) node- located in the upper part of the Right Atrium,
-connected to both Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nerves,
-signal spreads from the SA node causing the Right and then Left Atriums to contract from the Top-down, -
willl pump the blood from the Atrium down into the Ventricles
2). At the bottom of the Right atrium, AV (atrioventricular) nodes picks up the signal and transmits it to the area of the interventricular septum and the left & right bundle branches (Bundle of Hiss)
3). Left of Right Bundle Branches will carry the signal rapidly down the septum to
4). Purkinje Fibers (Conduction Myofibers) will cause both Ventricle to start contracting fomr Bottom-up, will pump the blood from the ventricle up into either the pulmonary trunk and Aorta above

Front 29

Pic- What are the parts of the Cardiac Conduction System?:

Back 29

Front 30

Pic- What are the parts of the Conduction System?:

Back 30

Conduction System

Front 31

Pic- What are the parts of the Cardiac Conduction System?:

Back 31

Front 32

Electrocradiogram (ECG or EKG):

Back 32

Records the electrical signals being produced by the Heart,
Typical ECG (lead II), you can see the electrical activity of the heart that relates to the actions of the chambers,

P-Wave- Deplorization of the Atriums,
QRS Complex- Deplorization of Ventricles,
T Wave-Replorization of the Ventricles

Front 33

Blood Vessels:

Back 33

The pipes of the body which allows the Heart to pump blood to all cells in the body,
Several different types of blood vessels:
Artery- a blood vessel carrying blood away from the heart and to the body, it is the high pressure side,
Vein- a blood vessel carrying blood toward the heart, this is the low pressue side,
Capillary- very small blood vessel that does the exchange w/ the tissues and is the turn around point btw Arteries and Veins,

fyi- Average adult body- ~50,000 miles of blood vessels, most are capillaries

Front 34

Artery and Vein Types:

Back 34

Artery (muscular)- Endothelium layer, basement membrane, internal elastic membrane- circular layers, 8-20 layers, smooth muscle- external elastic membrane & layer of CT,

Artery (elastic)- same as above- layers of elastic tissue- same as above,

Vein- endothelium layer, basement membrane- circular layers, 2-10 of smooth muscle- thinner layer of CT

Hint 34

FINISH THIS!!!!!!

Front 35

Pic- What are the characteristics of the Artery?:

Back 35

Artery

Front 36

Pic- What are the characteristics of the Vein?:

Back 36

Vein

Front 37

Capillary Types:

Back 37

Continuous Capillary- No gaps in endothelium layer- most areas within the body,

Fenestrated Capillary- small gaps btw endothelia- within renal corpuscle,

Sinusoid Capillary- large gaps in cell layer- within Spleen and Liver

Front 38

Pic- What are the characteristics of the Capillary?:

Back 38

Capillary

Front 39

Arteriole:

Back 39

Single layer of endothelium, basement membrane and 1 or 2 layers of continuous smooth muscle cells, Only interconnects the artery and the capillary, Is able to control the blood flow going into the Capillary

Front 40

Venule:

Back 40

Single layrer of endothelium cells, basement membrane and a non-continuous single layer of smooth muscle,
Interconnects the capillary to the vein,
It is not able to control the flow of blood out of the capillary

Front 41

Capillary Exchange:

Back 41

Hydrostatic Pressure- force pulling water out of capillary and chemicals dissolved in it, Osmosis- force pulling water into the capillary NET FILTRATION PRESSURE= BHP - BCOP, If +, water will come out of blood capillary on arterial side, If -, water will come into capillary on venous side, BHP will fall as you go from arterial side of capillary to venous capillary, BCOP will remain constant across the capillary

Front 42

Neural Regulation of Blood Pressure:

Back 42

CNS looks at: Proprioception- Joint movements and body position (standing or seated), Baroreceptors- monitor blood pressure (Arch or Aorta and Carotid arteries), Chemoreceptors- Monitoring acidity (pH), CO2 and O2, CNS responds by: Affects function of the hear rate and strength via the Parasympathetic (CNX) and Sympathetic nerves, Changes vasoconstriction via only Sympathetic nerves

Front 43

Hormonal Regulation of Blood Pressure:

Back 43

1. Renin- Angiotensin- Aldosterone System a). Renin is released from kidney when BP falls b). Angiotensin I & II created in blood stream c). Angiotensin II increased Vasoconstriction an the release of Aldosterone from Adrenal Cortex (increase water retention in kidneys) 2. Epinephrine & Norepinephrine a). cause a Sympathetic-like reaction in the heart and arteries b). released from Adrenal Medulla 3. Antidiuretic Hormone a). released from Hypothalamus via Posterior Pituitary b). ADH increases water retention in kidneys and vasocontriction (vasopressin)

Front 44

Types of Shock:

Back 44

HYPOVOLEMIC SHOCK- decrease in blood volume, CARDIOGENIC SHOCK- poor heart output, VASCULAR SHOCK- too much vasodilation, OBSTRUCTIVE SHOCK- major blockage to blood flow

Front 45

Lymphatic System:

Back 45

A pumpless, open circulatory system that drains excessive fluid from the tissues of the body, Usually drains about 3 liters per day, Fluid- Lymph fluid- moves in lymphatic vessels by gravity and muscle milking, Fluid is filtered in the lymph nodes, and returned to the venous system just above the heart, System has numerous lymph organs, which houses many of the body's lymphocytes

Front 46

Lymphatic System function:

Back 46

1. Drain excessive fluid form tissues, 2. Transport Ag (antigen) to region Lymph nodes from infected tissues 3. Transport dietary lipids from GI tract to blood, 4. Filters the blood of Ag and removes dead RBC's (spleen) 5. Provides a home for immune cells

Front 47

Lymphatic Capillaries:

Back 47

Found within the tissues, will drain excessive water from tissues, contains pores that allow the removal of larger chemicals (mw) and solid objects to be removed from tissues that cannot be removed by blood capillaries, Lymph fluid in lymph capillaries slowly move toward the regional nodes by gravity and muscle milking, Lymph Node- acts as an Immune filter to clear the Lymph fluid of harmful Ag, informs the Immune system of the presense of harmful Ag, Once Lymph fluid leaves node, will recycle fluid (mostly water) back to the venous blood stream, above the heart

Front 48

Lymph Organs:

Back 48

Lymph Nodes, Thymus, Spleen, Tonsil, Diffuse Lymph Tissue

Front 49

Lymph Nodes:

Back 49

Smallest and most numerous of all lymph organs, 1. Function: filter lymph fluid from body's tissue, 2. Size and Shape: 10-25 mm long & kidney bean shaped, 3. Structure: contains both Afferent and Efferent lymph vessels 4. Insdie node sub-divided into chambers by CT trabeculae, within each chamber, there are many lymphocytes

Front 50

Pic: What is this Tissue?:

Back 50

Lymph Node

Hint 50

Has germinal center- dense tissue- has CT capsule

Front 51

Thymus:

Back 51

Found in childhood but come apart with age, 1. In lower neck and in Anterior Mediastinum, 2. Contains Thymic Corpuscles 3. Primary Function: create T Lymphocytes (T-Cells)

Front 52

Pic: What tissue is this?:

Back 52

Thymus

Hint 52

Thick White Layer- dark red right inside thick layer (lymphocytes)- Thick Circles inside (thymic corpuscles)- no capsules- no epithelial

Front 53

Spleen:

Back 53

Single largest lymph organ, 1. Found in upper left quadrant of Abdomen, 2. Has thick CT capsule and contains Red Pulp- for removal of dead RBC's and White pulp- to filtrer blood of Ag

Front 54

Pic- What tissue is this?:

Back 54

Spleen

Front 55

Tonsil:

Back 55

5 found in ring between oral and Pharynx region, 1. each tonsil contains a crypt , allows microorganism in food/water to enter, 2. Inside tonsil, many lymphocytes to produce Ab (antibodies) against microorganism that entered GI tract

Front 56

Pic- What Tissue is this?:

Back 56

Tonsil

Hint 56

Has thick white layer- layers of stratified squamous on top- has a crypt (looks like a "v" in tissue- has germinal centers

Front 57

Diffuse Lymph Tissue:

Back 57

Lymphatic Nodules, Collections of lymphocytes (no capsule) within the muscous membranes of GI tract, urinary reproductive and respiratory tract

Front 58

Inflammation:

Back 58

A very important non-specific defense process that responds to tissue injury of any kind, Will alter the local permeability of the capiliaries in affected area, Key Process- will allow the other defense forces (WBC's, Ab, etc.) to leave the blood stream near to the sources of the problem and enter affecteed tissue, Important part of body's defense, with unpleasant symptoms, without inflammation, baody would not be able to bring WBC's or Immune System to field of battle

Front 59

Factors or Conditions that Trigger Inflammation:

Back 59

Triggered by the release of Histamine from Mast Cells in CT, Mast cells release histamine when: 1. mast cell receives a chemical signal from local tissue cells as they die 2. mast cells receives direct trauma 3. Immune system's IgE joins with a Ag in CT * The activation or fixing of complement causes the release of Histamine-like fragments, which is used to help maintain the inflammation process

Front 60

Symptoms of Inflammation:

Back 60

1 Redness 2. Swelling 3. Heat 4. Pain 5. Loss of function

Front 61

Inflammation Process:

Back 61

1. Mast cells release Histamine 2. Local arterioles vasodilate, causing the redness and heat (increase of arterial blood) 3. Great increase in hydrostatic force within the local capillaries 4. Hydrostatic pressure is greater than osmosis causing release of water (Transudate). Increased fluids pass into Lymph capillaries, pushing possible bacterial toward lymph nodes 5. Seconday Histamine effect occurs in endothelium tight gaps, which degrades and increases pressure in capillaries resulting in formation of small gaps between endothelia cells and increasing premeability, causing creation of Exudate (protein leaden fluid) 6. Blood movement slows down (blood thickens) and causes RBCs to clump, allowing WBC's to move to margin of capillary and migrate out of blood and into tissue 7. Mast cells release heparin to prevent the stoppage of blood due to slowing blood flow 8. WBCs leave blood in order they are found in blood: Neutrophils, Lymphocytes, Monocytes, 9. Antibodies aid Neutrophils in chemotaxis and phagocytosis, Lymphocytes bring immune system to infection area, Monocytes used to clean up the tissue in the end 10. Intersity of Inflammation is determined by the activity of the Neutrophils, Antibodies and Complement proteins in affected area and continued cell injury and cell death

Front 62

Immune System:

Back 62

A very specific defense system, Divided into 2 parts: T system or Cell-mediated immune system, B system or Antibody-mediated immune system, Produces proteins against foreign invaders (Ag), *uses the blood stream and inflammation to get to the site of infection

Front 63

Antigen (Ag):

Back 63

Something that provokes the immune system to react against it

Front 64

Immune Cells:

Back 64

Immune System operates by Lymphocytes, 2 major types of Lymphocytes: T Lymphocytes and B Lymphocytes, The body runs two different but interrelated immune systems

Front 65

Types of Immune Systems:

Back 65

Antibody mediated immune system- B System- (attack cell- Plasma cell)- protects against bacteria, fungus, yeast , some virus, and chemicals (penicillin) Cell-mediated immune system- T System- (attack cell T-killer cell)- protects against virus, animal cell infections, solid tissue tumors, organ transplants

Front 66

Immune Responses:

Back 66

Primary Immune Response- when immune system first encounters a new Ag, Lymphocyte will change to Immunoblast, which will take 24-72 hrs to determine 3D shape of Ag and prduce a counter 3D shape attack protein, then Immunoblast will become an active immune attack cell (plasma cell or T killer cell) and a memory cell, and will attack the Ag, Secondary Immune Response- some time later, the same Ag reenters the body, memory cell against this Ag will change into an attak cell and another memory cell (which saves time and allows immune system to attack Ag in time to prevent second infection) *Vaccines will create the secondary immune response without the damage of primary infection

Front 67

B System:

Back 67

Plasma Cells produce Antibodies (Ab) against Antigens (Ag), Antibody- four chain protein that is "Y" shaped, 1. Upper open arms of Y is Antibody Binding Site, where the Ag is attached, must have the specific 3D shapte to bind (lock and key), this is the variable portion of the Ab 2. Lower portion of Y is the Constant Portion, where the Ab will produce the immune work against Ag, Each Ab will be different attacks against Ag but Ag has to be attached to upper end

Front 68

Antibody Functions:

Back 68

Neutralization of Ag- Ab-Ag complex reduces the damaging affect of some Bacterial toxins or prevents some Virus from attaching to target cells, Immobilization of Bacteria- Ab-Ag complex prevents the spread of Bacteria by turning off their cilia or flagella function, Agglutination or Precipitation- Ab-Ag complex causes Bacteria to stick together in large clumps, so they can be easily phagocytized, Complement Activation (fixing)- Ab-Ag complex causs the activation of complement at the site of Ab-Ag complex, Enhancement of Phagocytosis- Ab-Ag complex will increase the ability of WBC to phagocytize the Bacteria

Front 69

Antibody Families:

Back 69

Type- Ab Size- Location- Function- IgG- single Y unit- plasma & lymph- longest half-life, fixes complement, travels fast in tissue and crosses placenta enhanced phagocytosis IgM- 5 Y units- plasma & lymph- fixes complement best, agglutination, causes blood type reactions IgA- 2 Y units- plasma, tears, saliva, mucus, milk & GI- help prevent organism from getting into body via mucous membrane IgE- single Y unit- CT near mast cells, small amount in plasma- Ab-Ag complex causes that release of Histamine & allergic reaction IgD- single Y unit- surface of B cells, small amount in plasma- involved in activation of B cell to Ag

Front 70

Complement:

Back 70

one the most powerful weapons against bacteria or other Ag. Consists of 12 plasma proteins produced by the liver, which are numbered C1 to C9 with 3 different C1 proteins. There are 2 different triggers to start the complement chain reaction by 2 different pathways that come together in a common pathway: Classical Pathway- 3 Ab-Ag complexes of 3 IgG or of one IgM, Alternative Pathway- the polysaccharides on the surface of the cell wall of some bacteria (typically gram negative). Once either pathway is activated, it will cause the accumulation of fixed complement proteins building to a critical mass leading to cytolysis of the target cell. Complement fixation reaction will also give off several protein fragments: Fragments C3a, C4a & C5a produce a Histamine-like reaction. Fragements C3b increasees phagocytosis of bacteria

Front 71

Cell-Mediated Immunity (T cell system)

Back 71

: T lymphocytes leave the lymphoid tissue and/or blood and seek out the Ag. On the surface of the T cell there are T cell receptors- TCRs (Ag receptors) and T cell will use these TCRs to bind to Ag or major histocompatibility complex

Front 72

Activation of T cells:

Back 72

Two step process: First Signal- when the T cell's TCR binds to Ag. Second Signal- Once bound, a chemical (Costimulator) is needed to create the second signal. There are more than 20 know chemicals, which Interleukin1 & Interleukin 2 are known. Once the T cell has received both signals, it is activated and the T cell will enlarge and proliferate into a cone of many attack cells and will produce thousands of Cytotoxic or T killer cells and T memory cells.

Front 73

Types of T Lymphocytes:

Back 73

Helper T cell or Th or T4- cell helps or stimulates the activation of T killer cells and also for the activation of B cells into plasma cells. Cytotoxic T cell or T killer cell or Tc or T8- attack cell for each specific Ag. T memory cell- cones the cells for the future to remember the immune shape of a specific Ag, fast response to Ag, will help prevent a second infection by the Ag agent.

Front 74

T killer cells at work:

Back 74

T killer will spread out looking for specific Ag and will attack it chemically by binding with Ag then releasing their toxic cargo. These chemicals : Perforin- causes cytolysis of infected host cell or foreign cell. Lymphotoxin- will destroy the DNA of infected host cell or foreign cell. Other chemical produced: Macrophage migration Inhibiting Factor- produced by T cells to help prevent Macrophages from leaving infected area(s). Gamma- Interferon- produced by helper & killer cells and enhances phagocytosis.

Front 75

Respiratory System:

Back 75

Brings oxygen (O2) into the body and expels Carbon Dioxide (CO2). A blind ended tube where the air must enter and leave via the same path. Fact: At rest, the body will use btw 200-250 ml of O2 per min. Respiratory System is one of the last systems to beocome operational during development, and the lungs are the least developed organ in the body of newly born infants and the most suusceptible to environmental damage. A major portal of entry for many infectious agents. Divided into 2 parts: Upper (all structures above the 1st pair of lungs) and Lower (all structure below) System.

Front 76

The Nose:

Back 76

Nasal cavity- divided into 2 parts seperated by the nasal septum: Entrance into the nose, Enternal Nares, leads to the dome shaped cavity. At apex of nasal cavity is the Olfactory epithelium. Extending out from the lateral walls are 3 shelve-like structures- Superior, Middle and Inferior Conchae. The 5 nasal sinus (2 maxillary, 2 frontal and 1 sphenoid) will connect to nasal cavities. Air will leave the nasal cavity via the internal nares and go into the Nasopharynx (superior part of pharynx). Exit from nose is protected by Soft palate, controlled by skeletal muscle.

Front 77

The Larynx:

Back 77

Just inferior to the Pharynx and attached to the posterior aspect of the larynx is the Esophagus. Is made of mostly cartilage to prevent closure of the air way.

Front 78

Functions of Larynx:

Back 78

1. separate the air from food/water by the use of two valve-like structures a). Epiglottis b. the vocal cords The food/water will be directed into Esophagus and air into Trachea 2. creates vibrations for voice production- Vocal cords 3. vocal cords can also be used for coughing Size of the larynx gives the basic vocal pitch, the larger the larynx the deeper the voice

Front 79

The Trachea:

Back 79

Foudn inferior to the Larynx and is often 12cm long. Made up of a series of "C" shaped cartilaginous rings, which will prevent collapse of airway. Will take the air down into the Thorax to the level of T5 just behind the upper part of the heart. Here it will divide into the left and right Bronchial trees. The Esphagus is found directly posterior to the Trachea.

Front 80

Lung Structure:

Back 80

Left lung contains 2 lobes divided by the a fissure: Oblique fissure. Right lung contains 3 lobes divided by 2 fissure: Upper fissue or Horizontal fissure & Lower fissure or Oblique fissure. On the Medial side of both lungs is the Hilus or Root of Lung. Pulmonary artery- brings blood into lungs. Pulmonary vein- removes oxygenated blood from lung and to heart. Primary Bronchi- allows air to move into & out of lungs. The outside of the lungs coated is with Pleura (double membrane)

Front 81

Bronchi System:

Back 81

A series of tubes that deliver air to all parts and corners of the lungs. Upper Bronchi are lined with pseudostratified squamous while the smaller or deeper Bronchi are lined with simple columnar. 1. Trachea gives rise to Primary Bronchi (supplies air to entire lung). Primary Bronchi enter lung at the Hilus or Root of the lung. 2. Once the Primary Bronchi enter the lung they divide into the Secondary Bronchi. One for each lobe of a lung. 3. Secondary Bronchi give rise to the Tertiary Bronchi. Each Tertiary Bronchi will supply air to a single Bronchopulmonary segment. The segments are the functional units within the lung (10 in each lung). Air flow and blood flow can be varied to provie the most efficiency from the lungs. 4. Tertiary Bronchi give rise to Bronchioles and terminal Bronchi and these tubes will stay within a single Bronchopulmonary segment. 5. Terminal Bronchi will end as the Alveolar Ducts an Alveolar sacs.

Front 82

Pic- Name the Blood Cells:

Back 82

Blood Cells

Front 83

Pic- What are the components of Blood?:

Back 83

Blood

Front 84

Pic- Microscopic view of Blood:

Back 84

Microscopic view of Blood

Front 85

Pic- Heart:

Back 85

Front 86

What are the primary functions of blood?

Back 86

Primary functions:
Internal transport
Regulation of body's internal environment
Protection of body from some diseases

Front 87

What are the 2 components of blood?

Back 87

Plasma and Blood Cells (formed elements)

Front 88

What are the plasma proteins and other solutes in plasma?

Back 88

Plasma proteins:
Albumin- osmosis
Globulins- carrier molecules and antibodies
Fibrinogen- clotting
other proteins (i.e. hormones)

Other Solutes:
Electrolytes, Organic Nutrients, Gases, Vitamins, Waste Chemicals

Front 89

What are the WBC and their purposes?

Back 89

Neutrophil- phagocytize bacteria and other cells
Lymphocyte- produces immune proteins
Monocyte- phagocytize cells and clean up
Eosinophils- used against allergy and worms
Basophil- produces Histamine and Heparin

Front 90

What are the three ways Platelets can be triggered?

Back 90

1. trauma to platelet directly
2. exposure to collagen
3. exposure to PF3 platelet factor

Front 91

What are the two types of valves in the body?

Back 91

Cuspid Valves- Bi- and Tricuspid

Semilnar Valves- Aortic and Pulmonary

Front 92

What are the waves in an ECK/EKG? What do they stand for?

Back 92

P Wave- Depolarization of Atriums
QRS complex- Depolarization of Ventricles
T Wave- Repolarization of Ventricles

Front 93

What are the different types of blood vessels?

Back 93

Artery- blood away from heart, high pressure
Vein- blood to heart, low pressure
Capillary- exchanges with tissues, turn around point for arteries and veins

Front 94

Pic- Name the parts of the Cow Heart Dissection:

Back 94

Cow Heart Dissection

Front 95

Pic- Which WBC is this?:

Back 95

Lymphocyte

Hint 95

Agranular- small cell- spherical nucleus- with BABY BLUISH cytoplasm

Front 96

Pic- Which WBC is this?:

Back 96

Monocyte

Hint 96

Agranular- Biggest WBC- Bluish/GREYISH cytoplasm- 'C' shaped nucleus-

Front 97

Pic- Which WBC is this?:

Back 97

Basophil

Hint 97

Granular- VERY DARK, black or purple granules- Bi-lobe nucleus

Front 98

Pic- Which WBC is this?l:

Back 98

Eosinophil

Hint 98

Granular- Bi-lobe nucleus "like a saddle"- ORANGE granules-

Front 99

Pic- Which WBC is this?l:

Back 99

Neutrophil

Hint 99

Granular- Pink Granules- 3-4 lobe nucleus-

Front 100

Pic- What WBC is this?:

Back 100

Eosinophil

Front 101

Pic- Which 2 WBC's are these?:

Back 101

Monocyte & Neutrophil

Front 102

Pic- What tissue is this?:

Back 102

Red Pulp

Front 103

Pic- WBC Chart:

Back 103

WBC Chart

Hint 103

(From Left-Right and Down) 1. Banded Neutrophil 2. Neutrophil 3. Eosinophil 4. Basophil 5. Large Lymphocyte 6. Lymphocyte 7. Monocyte

Front 104

Pic- What 2 WBCs are these?:

Back 104

Lymphocyte and Eosinophil

Front 105

Pic- What 2 WBCs are these?;

Back 105

Neutrophil and Lymphocyte