A & P Final

Front 1

CSF

Back 1

A DRIVITIVE OF BLOOD, INSIDE AND OUTSIDE THE BRAIN

Front 2

LATERALIZATION

Back 2

the tendency for certain processes to be more highly developed on one side of the brain than the other, such as development of spatial and musical thoughts in the right hemisphere and verbal and logical processes in the left hemisphere in most persons.

Front 3

CRANIAL NERVES

Back 3

the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord. It is interposed between the two other meninges, the more superficial dura mater and the deeper pia mater, and is separated from the pia mater by the subarachnoid space.

Front 4

CRANIAL NERVES CN-I

Back 4

The olfactory nerve is actually a collection of sensory nerve rootlets that extend down from the olfactory bulb and pass through the many openings of the cribriform plate in the ethmoid bone.

Front 5

CRANIAL NERVES CN-II

Back 5

CN II. Optic Nerve

The optic nerve originates from the bipolar cells of the retina which are connected to the specialized receptors in the retina (rod and cone cells).

Front 6

CRANIAL NERVES CN-VII

Back 6

CN VII. Facial Nerve

The facial nerve is mixed nerve containing both sensory and motor components. The nerve emanates from the brain stem at the ventral part of the pontomedullary junction. The nerve enters the internal auditory meatus where the sensory part of the nerve forms the geniculate ganglion.

Front 7

CRANIAL NERVES CN-VIII

Back 7

CN VIII. Vestibulocochlear Nerve

The vestibulocochlear nerve is a sensory nerve that conducts two special senses: hearing (audition) and balance (vestibular).

Front 8

CRANIAL NERVES CN-X

Back 8

CN X. Vagus Nerve.

The vagus nerve is the longest of the cranial nerve. Its name is derived from Latin meaning "wandering". True to its name the vagus nerve wanders from the brain stem through organs in the neck, thorax and abdomen.

Front 9

OCULAR MUSCLES

Back 9

Front 10

VAGUS

Back 10

Vagus Nerve.
AUTONOMIC
The vagus nerve is the longest of the cranial nerve. Its name is derived from Latin meaning "wandering". True to its name the vagus nerve wanders from the brain stem through organs in the neck, thorax and abdomen. The nerve exits the brain stem through rootlets in the medulla that are caudal to the rootlets for the ninth cranial nerve. The rootlets form the tenth cranial nerve and exit the cranium via the jugular foramen. Similar to the ninth cranial nerve there are two sensory ganglia associated with the vagus nerve.

Front 11

MENINGES

Back 11

•Protects Cranial Nerves and Spinal Cord
The meninges are membranes that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord. The meninges consist of the pia mater, dura mater and the arachnoid.

Front 12

CRANIOSACRAL NS

Back 12

???

Front 13

THORACOLUMBAR

Back 13

???

Front 14

GLIAL CELLS

Back 14

Glial cells are non-neural cells that perform "housekeeper" functions such as clearing out debris and excess materials. Glial cells support neurons by providing support and nutrition. There are several different types of glial cells: astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells, radial glial, satellite cells and schwann cells. It is estimated that there are 10 to 50 times more glial cells than there are neurons in the brain.

Front 15

MYELIN

Back 15

A substance rich in fatty lipids and proteins that covers and protects nerves. Myelin is a layered tissue that "sheathes" the nerve fibers. The myelin sheath aids in the rapid and efficient transmission of impulses along the nerve cells.

Front 16

RECEPTORS

Back 16

RECEPTORS-DETECTS STIMULI
Receptors transmit 4 kinds of info.
1) modality-type (vision)
2) location-receptive field
3) intensity-dim
4) duration length
RECEPTORS classification modality
1) thermo-heat
2) photo-light
3)chemo - chemical
4)mechano-physical
5)noci-pain
RECEPTORS classification origin stimulus
a) extro-
b) intero-
c) proprio-
RECEPTORS classification by RECEPTORS distribution
a) general skin, muscle, tendon, joint capsule, viscera

Front 17

MODALITY

Back 17

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Front 18

NERVE ENDINGS

Back 18

UNENCAPSULATED NERVE ENDINGS
A) free nerve endings
1) warm
2) cold
3) noci-
b) tactile discs (merkel) strarum basale
c) peritrichail

Front 19

NERVE ENDINGS

Back 19

Encapsulated Nerve endings
a) tactile corpuscles (Meissner) tactile discrimination
b) (krause) mechanoreceptor sound touch muscle contraction
c) lamellar corpuscles (pacinian) presure, touch, viberation
d) bulbous (ruffini) continuous presure
e) muscle spindle mechanorecptor
f) tendon organ (golgi) mechanorecptor

Front 20

Special Senses

Back 20

Special Senses

Front 21

Olfactory cells

Back 21

olfactory cells a set of specialized cells of the mucous membranes of the nose, which are receptors of smell.

Front 22

Olfactory tracts

Back 22

Set of nerve fibers conducting impulses from olfactory receptors to the cerebral cortex. It includes the OLFACTORY NERVE; OLFACTORY BULB; olfactory tract, olfactory tubercle, anterior perforated substance, and olfactory cortex. The term rhinencephalon is restricted to structures in the CNS receiving fibers from the olfactory bulb.

Front 23

GUSTATORY CELLS

Back 23

??

Front 24

GUSTATORY TRACTS

Back 24

??

Front 25

TASTE BUD

Back 25

Taste buds are composed of groups of about 40 columnar epithelial cells bundled together along their long axes. Taste cells within a bud are arranged such that their tips form a small taste pore, and through this pore extend microvilli from the taste cells. The microvilli of the taste cells bear taste receptors and it appears that most taste buds contain cells that bear receptors for 2 or 3 of the basic tastes.

Front 26

AUDITORY CELLS

Back 26

????

Front 27

AUDITORY TRACTS

Back 27

a bundle of ascending fibres that originate from the cochlear and auditory relay nuclei of the rhombencephalon, enter the trapezoid body, a transverse fibre stratum in which about half their number decussate, and from here turn rostrally along the lateral side of the spinothalamic tract; in the midbrain, it arches dorsally and enters the inferior colliculus in which all of its fibres terminate; the auditory pathway is transsynaptically extended from here by the brachium of the inferior colliculus to the medial geniculate body of the thalamus, from which in turn the auditory radiation leads to the auditory cortex; intercalated in the trapezoid body and along the ascending trajectory of the lemniscus are several cell groups in which part of the fibres synapse.

Front 28

AUDITORY OSSICLES

Back 28

ossicles of the middle ear that transmit acoustic vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear
bonelet, ossicle, ossiculum - a small bone; especially one in the middle ear
malleus, hammer - the ossicle attached to the eardrum
incus, anvil - the ossicle between the malleus and the stapes
stapes, stirrup - the stirrup-shaped ossicle that transmits sound from the incus to the cochlea

Front 29

VESTIBULAR TRACTS

Back 29

BALANCE

Front 30

OCULAR ANATOMY

Back 30

Front 31

OCULAR ANATOMY

Back 31

Front 32

GLAUCOMA

Back 32

The two main types of glaucoma are primary open angle glaucoma (POAG), and angle closure glaucoma. These are marked by an increase of intraocular pressure (IOP), or pressure inside the eye. When optic nerve damage has occurred despite a normal IOP, this is called normal tension glaucoma. Secondary glaucoma refers to any case in which another disease causes or contributes to increased eye pressure, resulting in optic nerve damage and vision loss.

Front 33

LENS

Back 33

concav = near sighted , thick
convex = far sighted, thin

Front 34

RODS/CONES

Back 34

Only rods and cones produce visual images.
There are two types of photoreceptors in the human retina, rods and cones.

Rods are responsible for vision at low light levels (scotopic vision). They do not mediate color vision, and have a low spatial acuity.

Cones are active at higher light levels (photopic vision), are capable of color vision and are responsible for high spatial acuity. The central fovea is populated exclusively by cones. There are 3 types of cones which we will refer to as the short-wavelength sensitive cones, the middle-wavelength sensitive cones and the long-wavelength sensitive cones or S-cone, M-cones, and L-cones for short.

Front 35

CILIA DENDRITES

Back 35

???

Front 36

OPTIC TRACTS

Back 36

It is a continuation of the optic nerve and runs from the optic chiasm (where half of the information from each eye crosses sides, and half stays on the same side) to the lateral geniculate nucleus.

Front 37

CN VIII TRACTS

Back 37

?????

Front 38

SOMATOSENSORY

Back 38

sensory activity having its origin elsewhere than in the special sense organs (as eyes and ears) and conveying information about the state of the body proper and its immediate environment ; also : relating to or being either of two regions in the parietal lobe that receive and process somatosensory stimuli.

Front 39

EAR ANATOMY

Back 39

??

Front 40

ENDOCRINE PROCESSES

Back 40

The Endocrine System
Regulates long-term processes:
Growth
Development
Reproduction
Uses chemical messengers to relay information and instructions between cells.

Front 41

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Back 41

Endocrine Communication
Endocrine cells release chemicals (hormones) into bloodstream
Alters metabolic activities of many tissues and organs simultaneously.
Target Cells
Are specific cells that possess receptors needed to bind and “read” hormonal messages

Hormones
Stimulate synthesis of enzymes or structural proteins
Increase or decrease rate of synthesis
Turn existing enzyme or membrane channel “on” or “off”

Front 42

GROUPS OF HORMONES

Back 42

Amino acid derivatives
Peptide hormones
Lipid derivatives

Front 43

TYROSINE

Back 43

?

Front 44

PITUITARY

Back 44

secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream. The term hypophysis (from the Greek, “lying under”) refers to the gland’s position on the underside of the brain. The pituitary has a major role in the regulation of many endocrine functions.

Front 45

CYCLIC AMP

Back 45

Activated when hormone binds to receptor at membrane surface and changes concentration of second messenger cyclic-AMP (cAMP) within cell:
increased cAMP level accelerates metabolic activity within cell!!!

Hint 45

A cyclic nucleotide of adenosine that acts at the cellular level to regulate various metabolic processes and mediate the effects of many hormones.

Front 46

G PROTIEN

Back 46

Enzyme complex coupled to membrane receptor, involved in link between first messenger and second messenger
Binds GTP

Front 47

CALMODULIN

Back 47

calcium-binding protein expressed in all eukaryotic cells. It can bind to and regulate a number of different protein targets, thereby affecting many different cellular functions

Front 48

RELEASING FACTORS

Back 48

any of several hormones produced in the hypothalamus and carried by a vein to the anterior pituitary gland where they stimulate the release of anterior pituitary hormones; each of these hormones causes the anterior pituitary to secrete a specific hormone
endocrine, hormone, internal secretion - the secretion of an endocrine gland that is transmitted by the blood to the tissue on which it has a specific effect

Front 49

NEGITIVE FEEDBACK

Back 49

a hormone from a peripheral gland, for example, cortisol, binds to its receptor on cells in the hypothalamus and adenohypophysis, and has the effect of inhibiting secretion of tropic hormones

Front 50

THYMUS

Back 50

stimulate T lymphoctes

Front 51

C CELLS

Back 51

a cell type of the thyroid gland, situated between or within the walls of follicles, with numerous small membrane-limited secretory granules in the cytoplasm. The source of calcitonin. Called also parafollicular cell.

Front 52

PTH

Back 52

A chemical substance produced by the parathyroid glands. This hormone is a major element in regulating calcium in the body.

Front 53

ADRENALS

Back 53

The adrenal glands, which reside on top of the kidneys, are responsible for producing a myriad of hormones - aldosterone, cortisol, adrenaline, progesterone, estrogen, and testosterone. These hormones are vital for optimal body function; an imbalance of any of these hormones can cause dramatic health issues - anxiety, depression, fatigue, insomnia, infertility, unrefreshing sleep, hormone imbalances, excessive PMS symptoms, menopause, loss of libido, thyroid dysfunction, arthritis, and more!

Front 54

TARGET CELL RESPONSE

Back 54

??

Front 55

ENDOCRINE REFLEXES

Back 55

Endocrine reflexes are the counterparts of neural reflexes

Front 56

HYPOTHALAMUS

Back 56

•Controls Autonomic Functions
•Emotions
•Endocrine Functions
•Homeostasis
•Motor Functions
•Regulates Food and Water Intake
•Regulates Sleep Wake Cycle
The hypothalamus is located in the limbic system of the brain, an area of the brain that controls emotions and behavior. So it makes sense that the hypothalamus gland controls our emotions and behaviors, including sexual behavior.

Another key activity of the hypothalamus is secreting hormones that support the normal function of the pituitary gland. Other fundamental tasks, performed by the hypothalamus, include regulating body temperature, appetite, digestion, circulation and sleep. Additionally, the hypothalamus gland controls critical metabolic activities, helping us maintain healthy fluid levels and properly metabolize fats and sugars.

Front 57

EXOCRINE PANCREAS

Back 57

Control of the exocrine function of the pancreas is via the hormones gastrin, cholecystokinin and secretin, which are hormones secreted by cells in the stomach and duodenum, in response to distension and/or food and which cause secretion of pancreatic juices.

Front 58

ENDOCRINE PANCREAS

Back 58

endocrine gland producing several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin, as well as an exocrine gland, secreting pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes that pass to the small intestine. These enzymes help in the further breakdown of the carbohydrates, protein, and fat in the chyme.

Front 59

CHOLESTEROL PRECURSOR

Back 59

precursor for all hormones

Front 60

T2/T3

Back 60

tertosterone, estrogen produce FSH + LH gamies to produce.

Front 61

NEUROHYPOSIS

Back 61

ADH toxtiocine

Front 62

GRAVES DISEASE

Back 62

Hyperthyroidism

Front 63

CALCIUM METTABOLISM

Back 63

takes CA out of bone

Front 64

EICOSANOID

Back 64

Eicosanoid: A lipid mediator of inflammation derived from the 20-carbon atom arachidonic acid (20 in Greek is "eicosa") or a similar fatty acid. The eicosanoids include the prostaglandins, prostacyclin, thromboxane, and leukotrienes.