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63 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Descriptive Questions
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aim to provide descriptive information about a social phenomenon (population, program, social problem)
What are demographic and psychosocial characteristics of men who batter women? What are typical reasons for referral to school based mental health clinics? What are staffing and funding patterns for methadone clinics in the United States? |
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Exploratory Questions
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aim to uncover or examine relationships between two or more phenomena.
To what extent do job characteristics or worker characteristics relate to staff turnover in public child welfare agencies? What are the individual characteristics of foster parents that relate to child permanency outcomes? |
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Explanatory/predictive/evaluative Questions
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aim to provide evidence of a causal relationship between two or more phenomena.
Does engagement in mindfulness practice effect adolescent well-being? Does participation in special education impact student academic achievement? |
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Independent Variables
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(aka predictor, X variables) a variable that causes or leads to variation in another variable
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Dependent Variables
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(aka criterion, outcome, Y variables) a variable that varies depending on another variable
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Cross-Sectional Study
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A study based on observations that represent a single point in time
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Cohort Study
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A study in which some specific groups is studied over time, although data may be collected from different members in each set of observations.
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Trend Study
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Longitudinal studies that monitor a given characteristic of some population over time
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Panel Study
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Longitudinal studies in which data are collected from the same sample at several points in time
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Concept
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a mental image that symbolizes an idea, an object, an event, or a person
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Attribute
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Concepts that make up a broader concept are called attributes, e.g. male/female=biological sex
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Extraneous (control) Variables
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a variable that is held constant in an attempt to further clarify the relationship between two other variables.
Having discovered a relationship between education and prejudice, for example, we might hold gender constant by examining the relationship between education and prejudice among men only and then among women only. In this example, “gender” would be the control variable. |
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Mediating Variables
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The mechanism by which an independent variable affects a dependent variable.
Lower achievement among students with mental health problems occurs via lowered adult educational expectations. |
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Moderating Variables
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A variable that influences the strength or direction of a relationship between independent and dependent variables.
Both minority status and being male are related to higher levels of school dropout, but males who are minority have particular high rates of dropout. |
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Conceptualization
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The mental process whereby fuzzy and imprecise notions (concepts) are made more specific and precise.
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Operational Definition
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The concrete and specific definition of something in terms of operations by which observations are to be categorized
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Nominal level of measurement
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identifies variables whose values have no mathematical interpretation; they vary in kind or quality but not in amount.
In terms of the variable “Occupation”’ you can say that a lawyer is not equal to a nurse, but you cannot say that the “lawyer” is “more occupational” or “less occupational” than the nurse |
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Ordinal level of measurement
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a level of measurement describing a variable whose attributes may be rank-ordered along some dimension.
an example would be measuring “socioeconomic status” by the attributes high, medium, and low. |
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Interval level of measurement
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a level of measurement that describes a variable whose attributes are rank-ordered and have equal distances between adjacent attributes.
The Fahrenheit temperature scale is an example of this. |
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Ratio level of measurement
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a level of measurement that describes a variable whose attributes have all the qualities of nominal, ordinal, and interval measures and also are based on a true zero point.
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Measurement Error
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Data do not accurately portray the concept we attempt to measure.
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Systematic Error
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we can predict the direction of the error and it has a biasing effect.
Leading questions Social Desirability bias Cultural Bias |
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Random Error
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Non-predictable error
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Reliability
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That quality of a measurement method that suggests that the same data would have been collected each time in repeated observations of the same phenomenon. The more reliable the measure, the less random error
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Interobserver and interrater reliability
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the extent of consistency among different observers in their judgements, as reflected in the percentage of agreement or degree of correlation in their independent ratings
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Test-retest reliability
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assessing a measure’s stability overtime. Acceptable reliability is above .70 or .80 (the higher the better).
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Internal consistency reliability
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Assess whether the items of a measure are internally consistent
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Validity
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a descriptive term used of a measure that accurately reflects the concept that it’s intended to measure.
For example, your IQ would seem a more valid measure of your intelligence than would the number of hours you spend in the library. |
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Face Validity
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That quality of an indicator that makes it seem a reasonable measure of some variable.
That the frequency of church attendance is some indication of a person's religiosity seems to make sense without a lot of explanation: It has face validity. |
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Content Validity
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The degree to which a measure covers the range of meanings included within the concept.
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Criterion-related Validity
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The degree to which a measure relates with some external criterion.
For example, the validity of the college board exam is shown in its ability to predict the college success of students. |
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Construct Validity
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The degree to which a measure relates to other variables as expected within a system of theoretical relationships and as reflected by the degree of its convergent validity and discriminant validity.
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Factorial Validity
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Whether the number of constructs and the items that make up those constructs on a measurement scale are what the researcher intends.
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Sampling
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The process of selecting a sample
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Probability Sampling
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The use of random sampling techniques that allow a researcher to make relatively few observations and generalize from those observations to a much wider population.
Simple random, systematic, stratified, and cluster sampling. |
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Non-Probability Sampling
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Sampling procedures in which random selection processes are not utilized.
Availability/convenience, purposive, quota, snowball sampling |
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Simple Random sampling
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Elements have an equal and independent chance of being selected, using a random start
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Systematic Sampling
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Every kth element is selected, using a random start.
For example, every 25th student in the college directory of students. |
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Stratified Sampling
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Elements are randomly drawn from homogenous subsets of a population.
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Cluster Sampling
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Same principles as simple random sampling, but your sampling unit(s) is/are a group of elements so there are at least two “stages” of sampling.
Randomly selecting a set of classrooms in an elementary school, and then randomly selecting a set of children in the classes. |
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Availability/convenience Sampling
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Selecting elements purely on the basis of accessibility.
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Purposive Sampling
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Multiple types, with strong, conceptual rationale for strategy.
deviant cases, key stakeholders, etc. |
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Quota Samples
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Specify the type of element to be selected to reflect population characteristics
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Snowball Samples
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Rely on a network of referrals
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Internal Validity
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The confidence we have that the results of a study accurately depict whether one (independent) variable is or is not a cause of another (dependent).
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External Validity
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Refers to the extent to which we can generalize the findings of a study to settings and populations beyond the study conditions; internal validity is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for external validity.
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Experimental Design
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A research method that attempts to provide maximum control for threats to internal validity by: (1) randomly assigning individuals to experimental and control groups, (2) introducing the independent variable (which typically is a program or intervention method) to the experimental group while withholding it from the control group, and (3) comparing the amount of experimental and control group change on the dependent variable.
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Quasi-Experimental Design
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Design that attempts to control for threats to internal validity and thus permits causal inferences but is distinguished from true experiments primarily by the lack of random assignment of subjects.
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Pre-experimental Design
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Pilot study designs for evaluating the effectiveness of interventions; they do not control for threats to internal validity.
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Observational Design
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researchers study naturally occurring variation among variables, without any intervention by the researchers
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Naturalism
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A qualitative research paradigm that emphasizes observing people in their natural, everyday social settings and on reporting their stories the way they tell them.
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Grounded Theory
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A qualitative research approach that begins with observations and looks for patterns, themes, or common categories
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Participatory Action Research
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A qualitative research paradigm in which the researcher's function is to serve as a resource to those being studied - typically, disadvantaged groups - as an opportunity for them to act effectively in their own interests. The disadvantaged participants define their problems, define the remedies desired, and take the lead in designing the research that will help them realize their aimed.
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Case study
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An idiographic examination of a single individual, family, group, organization, community, or society using a full variety of evidence regarding that case.
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Qualitative Research Methods
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Research methods that emphasize depth of understanding and the deeper meanings of human experience, and that aim to generate theoretically richer, albeit more tentative, observations. Commonly used qualitative methods include participant observation, direct observation, and unstructured or intensive interviewing.
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Positivist Standard for Evaluating Qualitative Studies
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Prolonged engagement
Triangulation Peer debriefing and support Negative case analysis Member Checking Auditing |
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Social Constructivist standard for evaluating qualitative studies
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Strategies to capture multiple subjective realities than of ensuring the portrayal of an objective social reality
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Empowerment standard for evaluating qualitative studies
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Research must evoke action by participants to effect desired change and a redistribution of power
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Four Threats to Internal Validity
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Endogenous Change
External Events Contamination Selection Bias |
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Endogenous Change
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when the subjects develop or change during the experiment as part of an ongoing process independent of the experimental treatment
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External Events
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when something occurs during the experiment, other than the treatment, which influences outcome scores
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Contamination
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when either the experimental group or the comparison group is aware of the other group and is influenced in the posttest as a result
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Selection Bias
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when characteristics of the experimental and comparison group subjects differ - especially on initial dependent variables of interest or variables highly associated with the dependent variable of interest
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