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40 Cards in this Set
- Front
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Congress of Vienna
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1814-1815. Leaders of last coalition against Napoleon (Prussia, Russia, Austria, Great Britain) reestablished European balance of power after Napoleonic wars and restored some of the old regimes. Goal was to construct a system that would promote peace through the balance of powers. Thrones were to be re-established as they were in 1789. Each state of Quadruple Alliance was given new territories.
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Concert of Europe
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Agreement produced by Congress of Vienna that produced international stability border-wise. This type of stability was unprecedented and played a factor in the ability of countries to develop industrially.
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German Confederation
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Thirty-nine German states grouped in a weak confederation as a result of the Congress of Vienna. Took the place of German states which previously numbered in the hundreds but vanished since 1789. Prussia and Austria were also members of German Confederation, which would cause conflict because both had right to rule German lands.
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"Congress Kingdom" of Poland
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Division of Poland by Congress of Vienna. Alexander I obtained Poland but agreed to reduce its size and allow Prussia and Austria to keep some of their gains from the partition. Russian tsar still ruled Poland via a representative, but Poland got a consultative assembly, which was more than Russians had and led Russians to be discontent/contribute to rebellion.
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Continental System
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Boycott of trade with Britain enacted by France during Napoleonic wars.
Enacted in retaliation against British funding of alliances against Napoleonic France, and British naval blockade of France. Idea was to weaken France economically, then invade. Did not work. Dumb Napoleon. Did have economic effects and Russia's withdrawal from embargo led Napoleon to invade Russia, which was a turning point for the war. |
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Holy Alliance
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The Quadruple Alliance becoming a "Holy Alliance" under the suggestion of Alexander I, based upon "the immutable principles of the Christian religion."
Austria and Prussia signed it, but British Castlereagh thought it was stupid and didn't. Principles rarely observed--Alexander broke all of his dumb promises. Metternich thought it useful for combating revolution/liberalism and maintaining traditional forms of rule in Austria (in particular) and Europe though. |
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Maximilen Robespierre
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Leader of the French republican government who executed Reign of Terror. Thought "false" revolutionaries had to be destroyed to preserve French democracy, and used guillotine to execute ~14,000 people, mostly peasants and artisans identified as "spies" by secret police. Was beheaded himself in 1794. Actions would impact people's view of revolutions (esp. those outside France) for years to come. "Terror is... swift justice... that flows from virtue."
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Civil Code (Napoleonic Code)
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A civil law code established by Napoleon that forbade privileges based on birth, allowed freedom of religion, and specified that government jobs should go to the most qualified. Made laws clearer and more accessible. No secret laws were alllowed, no ex post facto laws. Impacted the laws of many countries formed during and after Napoleonic wars.
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Committee of Public Safety
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Government of 12 members formed during French Reign of Terror that protected the newly established republic against foreign attacks and internal rebellion. As a wartime measure, the Committee was given broad supervisory powers over military, judicial, and legislative efforts. Became very powerful. Robespierre was a member. Responsible for instituting Reign of Terror. Ended after Robespierre's execution, when members were replaced and term limits were imposed.
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Reign of Terror
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Period of violence during less than a year (1793-94), in which "enemies of the revolution" (14,000 or more) were killed by guillotine. Instituted by Committee of Public Safety and Robespierre. Ended after Robespierre's execution.
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Leevee en masse
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Basically a draft of all unmarried, able-bodied men between 18 and 25, decreed by National Convention in 1793. It protected France's borders and required other armies to expand, beyond ability to pay for soldiers. An effect of the levée en masse was the creation of a national army in France, made up of citizens, rather than an all professional army, as was the standard practice of the time.
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National Convention
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After France was declared a republic by radicals, National Convention was the new ruling body, elected by French men. As a result, radical changes implemented in economic and educational legislation. Calendar year was also changed. Committee of Public Safety functioned under this Convention and really ruined lots of things.
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Jacobins
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Influential political club in development of French Revolution. Robespierre was a notable member, and his faction in National Convention consisted of Jacobins. Implemented Reign of Terror. Encouraged sentiments of patriotism and liberty. Still a really crummy group.
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1791 Constitution
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First written constitution in France, created after the collapse of the absolute monarchy. King Louis XVI reluctantly accepted in 1791. The National Assembly was the legislative body, the king and royal ministers made up the executive branch and the judiciary was independent of the other two branches. On a local level, the previous feudal geographic divisions were formally abolished, and the territory of the French state was divided into several administrative units (departments). Redefined organization of French government and set out to represent interests of general will.
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Civil Constitution of the Clergy
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Law passed in1790 during the French Revolution, which subordinated the Roman Catholic Church in France to the French government. Opposed by Louis XVI but ultimately he gave in. Also made some reforms requiring bishops, etc to be observed in their duties. Telling of the view of church vs. govt by French, and role of church at this time.
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Declaration of Rights of Man and the Citizen
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Issued by National Assembly in 1789. Enlightenment document that established the individual right to liberty, equality of all before the law, freedom of speech, abolition of serfdom and aristocratic privileges (AKA Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity). Political sovereignty was invested in the nation, not in an ancient monarchy. Very radical; attacked king's claim to rule alone.
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Storming of the Bastille
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14 July 1789. Demonstrators of Third Estate attacked the Bastille. Its fall was the spark of the French Revolution because it represented monarchy and its abuses.
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Tennis Court Oath
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Pledge signed by most members from the Third Estate who were locked out of a meeting of the Estates-General in 1789. Made in a makeshift conference room inside a tennis court. Asserted that political authority derived from the people and their representatives rather than from the monarch.
Forced Louis XVI to order the clergy and the nobility to join with the Third Estate in the National Assembly. De-legitimized king's divine right to rule. Inspired revolutionary activity. |
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National Assembly
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Third Estate, when denied proper representation in Estates General of 1789, met on its own. Gradually joined by some of the nobles and the majority of the clergy and started calling themselves National Assembly. Ruled alongside king. Claimed to be operating in the interests of King Louis XVI as well as those of the people. Wrote Tennis Court Oath and Declaration of Rights of Man and the Citizen. Establishment would lead to French Revolution by extension as well.
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Estates General
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General assembly representing the French estates of the realm: the clergy (First Estate), the nobles (Second Estate), and the common people (Third Estate). Legislative body called and dismissed by the king. Advisory board. Meeting in 1789 would lead to National Assembly, Tennis Court Oath, and all sorts of other things including French Revolution.
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Constitutional Charter (France)
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Constitution granted by King Louis XVIII of France shortly after his restoration. The Congress of Vienna demanded that Louis bring in a constitution of some form before he was restored. Contained such measures as a declaration of equality before the law, due process rights, religious toleration, freedom of the press, protection of private property -- gains of French Revolution.
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Revolution of 1830 in France
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Charles X issued Four Ordinances which would have stripped people of their current rights, so lower bourgeoisie and urban artisans protested the new laws, fueled by the press. Charles abdicated and Louis Philippe took the throne. People were still unhappy, so he cracked down on freedom of the press. Sucked but this uprising inspired revolts over Europe.
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Reform Bill of 1832
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Created electoral reform in Britain. Didn't do much in terms of expanding franchisement, but created a precedent of "revolutionary change without revolutionary violence." Britain gained expansion of voting rights to middle class male voters; gave seats in Commons to unrepresented industrial towns. Later allowed liberal causes, eg. abolition of slavery, to have a voice.
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Edmund Burke
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Set tone for counterrevolutionary conservativism. Parliament member. Against over-reliance on reason. Individual life had meaning within context of community; evolution of regimes over time were more trustworthy sudden changes and reliance on reason, religion held social groups together. B/c people driven by passions, restraints needed to control them. HIS IDEOLOGIES appealed to people in need of security during times of change.
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Reflections on the Revolutions in France
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Writing by Edmund Burke. Responds to excesses of revolution and defends tradition. Attacks Enlightenment and reliance on reason. Evolution of government over time is more tested and true than innovations or societal reform. Change brings anarchy.
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Klemens von Metternich
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Austrian foreign minister. Dominated Congress of Vienna negotiations Suppressed resistance in German states (as well as Italy later on) and made Karlsbad Decrees, controlling speech and closely watching political opponents. Didn't **** around really. Would not support attacks on legitimate government (Ottoman Empire) even though Russians supported Greeks against Ottomans. Basically completely against revolutions and pledged in 1833 with Russia and Prussia to assist any sovereign threatened by revolution.
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Karlsbad Decrees (1819)
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Established by Metternich to crush liberal nationalist movement by creating harsh controls on speech and authorizing surveillance, interrogation, imprisonment of political opponents. It limited academic freedom and dissolved revolutionary societies. Really a blow to liberalism and nationalism, which was growing in Europe.
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Decembrist Revolt (1825)
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Young officers serving on the Napoleonic campaigns were bitter after seeing western freedoms that Russians lacked. When Alexander suddenly died and there was confusion over succession, Northern Society military officers occupied where Nicholas' oath as ruler was to take place, and planned to overthrow the tsar and create constitutional monarchy. Eventually Nicholas told his troops to open fire and rebel troops were killed/arrested.
Impact: an attack on the legitimacy of autocracy and revolutionaries became model for successive generations of revolutionaries. Their courage caused them to be seen as martyrs in cause of democratic reform. |
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"Nicholas System"
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Nicholas' policies of repression intended to stamp out radicalism. Created extensive police force, repressed what could be discussed in realm of education (driving intellectual life underground), created new bureaucratic institutions, codified laws. Alienated most educated and active members of society and blocked dynamism needed for development.
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Slavophiles
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Group of intellectuals who believed Russia was distinguished from western Europe and who looked to Russia for progress. Opposed to serfdom, govt interference and militarism of Nicholas' regime, and idealized sobornost (communalism) of medieval times & collectivism. Idealized old Russia.
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Westernizers
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Looked to the west's progress as inspiration for Russia. Favored freedom of speech/ press; opposed autocracy. Didn't like commercialism of society. High regard for peasantry, collectivism.
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Adam Smith
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Capitalist economic theory. Believed individuals are guided to compete with one another for self-improvement. Without govt interference, monopolies, etc., natural laws of marketplace--"the invisible hand"--would produce a natural social order, eventually leading to the greatest wealth of nations. Laissez-faire based on this theory. Justified the few provisions that industrialists gave to their workers, in wages and social services.
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David Ricardo
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Helped develop economic laissez-faire, based on Smith's ideas. Attributed economic activity to rent, profit, and wages. Iron Law of Wages -- high wages and large families lead to increase in labor supply lead to increase in job competition lead to slump in wages. Fewer children lead to higher wages leads to cycle all over again.
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Jeremy Bentham
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Utilitarianism. The goal of any action should be to achieve the greatest good for the greatest number. Govt should act as "passive policemen" and govern as little a possible, but step in when self-interest of some individuals worked against best interests of others.
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John Stuart Mill
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Humanitarian liberalism. Universal suffrage and universal education = immediate objectives. Curb overpopulation by promoting emigration to colonies and elevate workers through education. Believed state had to protect women, children and improve living and working conditions. Protection of rights of individual and wanted proportional representation in the House of Commons.
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Chartism
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A movement to franchise British working men. Strength lay in the unions and supported by many intellectuals. Document called The Great Charter called for universal male suffrage, secret ballot, annual elections, salaries for Parliamentary members so that workers can afford to serve. Rejected twice by Parliament.
Important because it shows that workers had to struggle harder to win rights that middle class achieved more easily, and that liberal electoral reform came intermittently. |
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Lord Byron
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AKA George Gorden. English aristocrat w/ mental instability. Wrote Romantic poetry and expressed his experiences, alternating moods in his poems, which brought attention to his life and work. One of first public celebrities of modern age. Also used wealth and rank to speak out for liberal causes.
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Eugene Delacroix
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French Romantic painter famous for depictions of major events, struggles of his day, as seen in Liberty Leading the People depicting 1830 revolution. Used mythic figures, classical form to convey ideas, but also experimented with color, movement, perspective. Paintings conveyed depth of feeling, authenticity, heroism of contemporary life.
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Johann Gottfried von Herder
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Developed an early theory of nationalism based on shared cultural heritage. Each nation has own distinct personality and pattern of growth. Thought nationalism was natural and waiting to be discovered, rather than constructed.
Prompted German folk tales published by Grimm brothers in search of unique German spirit. Also helped stimulate people whose cultures has been suppressed/changed (Polish, Czech) to search for national spirit in folk culture. Nationalism led to cultural competition rather than pluralism. |
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Frantisek Palacky
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Considered a father of the Czech nation. Refused to take part in deliberations with Germany at Frankfurt during revolution in 1848 because, as a Czech he had no interest in German affairs and furthermore didn't like their apparent intent to undermine Austria. Wanted Germany to be attached to Austrian Empire, or at least for German and Austrian Empires to ally and be equal.
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