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178 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Hematocrit.
The percentage of erythrocytes in the blood.
Functions of Blood.
1. Distribution
2. Regulation
3. Protection
Distribution effect of Blood.
It delivers oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and transports metabolic wastes.
Regulation effect of Bood.
It maintains normal body temperature by absorbing and distributing heat, it maintains normal pH, maintains blood volume, and therefore maintains body fluid levels.
Protection effect of Blood.
Prevents blood loss through damaged vessels by coagulation and prevents infection by transporting immune cells.
Plasma.
A straw colored, sticky fluid that is 90% water and has over 100 disolved solutes.
Plasma proteins are made by...
_______ make up 8% of the blood and are made by hormones, gamma globulins, and the liver.
ALbumin.
The major plasma protein that acts as a carrier molecule/chaperone to protect other proteins while traveling in the circulation.
Functions of Albumin.
- This plamsa protein is a buffer.
- It binds some drugs
- It contributes to the osmotic pressure in the blood.
These are the contibutors to osmotic pressure in the blood.
The plasma protein albumin and Ions like Na+ contribute to blood's ________.
Hormones.
Steriod and thyroid hormones carried by plasma proteins.
Respiratory gases.
O2 and CO2 bound to hemoglobin inside RBCs. CO2 also is dissolved in the plasma.
Electrolytes.
Ions that help maintain plasma osmotic pressure and normal blood pH.
Nutrients.
Materials absorbed from digestive tract and transported for use throughout the body.
Non-nitrogenous substances.
By-products of cellular respiration.
Formed Elements.
Cells that live in the blood.
Erythrocyte stucture.
A biconcave cell with no nucleus. Contains hemoglobin and is fairly flexible.
RBC function.
They lack organelles so they generate their ATP anaerobically. Major contributor of blood viscosity. More RBCs=More viscosity. Functions in gas transport.
Hemoglobin.
This makes RBCs red. It's a protein that binds with oxygen and carbon dioxide reversibly.
Hemoglobin structure.
This is made of the 4 polypeptide chained (2 alpha dn 2 beta) protein globin that binds to a red ring-like heme pigment. Each heme has an iron attached and each Fe can carry one oxygen.
Hemoglobin can carry _____ molecules of oxygen.
_______ can carry 4 molecules of oxygen.
Pathway of oxygen.
Oxygen gets picked up in the lungs and binds to the hemoglobin. Then is travels to the tissues where it is released.
Oxyhemoglobin.
Bright red, hemoglobin picking up oxygen in the lungs.
Deoxyhemoglobin.
Dark red, Hemoglobin releasing oxygen into the tissues.
Carbaminohemoglobin.
When carbon dioxide attaches to hemoglobin, occurs in the tissues.
Location of Red Blood Cell formation.
These are formed in the red bone marrow in the blood sinusoids found near capillary networks.
Red bone marrow is found here.
______ is found in the sternum, humerus, hip bones, and heads of the femur.
Hematopoiesis.
The process of forming RBCs.
Blood Sinusoids.
Found in the red bone marrow near the capillaries where RBCs are formed.
Hematopoietic Stem Cell.
This is the originating cell of erythrocytes that lives in the bone marrow.
Erythropoiesis.
This process begins when the stem cell descendants (myeloid stem cells) become proerythroblasts.
Erythrocyte Development pathway.
Hemocytoblast (stem cell) --> Proerythroblast (committed cell) --> Early erythroblast - Late erythroblast (developmental pathway) --> normoblast -->Reticulocyte --> Erythrocyte.
Red Blood Cell production is controlled by these factors.
Hormones, and adequate supply of iron, amino acids, and b VITAMINS are the contolling factors of _______ production.
Erythropoietin.
A hormone that directly stimulates production of erythrocytes. Produced by the liver and the kidneys.
A drop in ________ triggers the release of more erythropoietin.
A drop in blood oxygen triggers level triggers more ______ hormone to be produced.
Factors that tigger a drop in blood oxygen levels.
1. A reducd number of RBCs due to hemmorrhage or excessive loss.
2. Insufficient hemoglobin per RBC (from iron deficiency).
3. Reduced availability of oxygen. (from high altitude or pneumonia)
Hypoxia.
A lack of oxygen.
Anemia.
A condition where the blood is abnormally low in its oxygen carrying capacity. A symptom, not a disease.
Anemia causes and symptoms.
This disease is caused by insufficient RBC numbers, low hemoglobin content, and abnormal hemoglobin.
The symptoms are fatigue, paleness, shortness of breathe, and chilliness.
Renal Dialysis is the treatment for this.
When patients kidneys have failed and they have too little erythropoietin, they need synthetic forms administered. This process is called.
Abuse of the synthetic form of erythropoietin.
Athletes do this to increase stamina, but may die from the blood becoming to viscous and leading to clots, stroke, and heart failure.
Hemorrhagec Anemia.
This is caused by acute blood loss. Can be chronis from an untreated bleeding ulcer or hemorrhoids. Treatment is controlling the bleeding.
Hemolytic Anemia.
This is where RBCs rupture prematurely. It can be caused by hemoglobin, a mismatched blood transfusion, bacterial infections, and parasitic infections.
Aplastic Anemia.
This is caused from the destruction of red bone marrow from drugs, chemicals, radiation, and viruses. You may see clotting transfusion until bone marrow is transplanted.
Nutritional Anemia.
This anemia is caused id=f hemoglobin molecules are normal but there is not enough dietary iron.
Iron deficient anemia.
This is secondary to hemorrhagic anemia. Caused by insufficient iron diets or inability to absorb iron. A sign is microcytes. Treatment is iron supplements and blood transfusions.
Microcytes.
Red blood cells being produced are small and pale due to iron deficiency.
Pernicious Anermia.
This is a condition due to lack of vitamin B12. May be caused by a lack of the intrinsic factor. Treatment includes injections of B12 or use of Nascobal (nasal lining gel containing B12).
Intrinsic Factor.
This is made by the stomach mucosa and must be present to absorb vitamin B12. If it isn't, the RBCs become macrocytes and a person develops pernicious anemia.
Natural location of B12.
This vitamin is found in red meats, poulty, and fish.
Macrocytes.
RBCs that are large and pale cells that grow but don't divide.
Thalassemias.
This is seen in people of mediterranean ancestory like greek and italian. One of the globin chains is faulty or absent causing fragile and weak RBCs. Treated by transfusions, can be fatal.
Cause of thalassemias.
This abnormal hemoglobin disease is caused by a genetic gene and is incurable.
Sickle Cell Anemia cause.
This disease is caused by the abnormal hemoglobin called hemoglobin S that effects beta chains. Beta chains stick together under low O2 conditions causing the cells to become sickle shaped.
Sickle Cell symptoms.
This disease causes victims to be in severe pain, gasping for air. Also strokes and infections are common.
Common Sickle cell victims.
THis disease affects black people in the malarie belt of Africa and their descendants. 1 in 400 black newborns in the US are affected. 300-400 million ppl globally are effected each year.
Sickle Cell's effects on malaria.
This disease gives ppl with malaria a chance for survival. It is a recessive gene mutation and requires 2 copies.
Hydroxyurea.
Used to treat Sickle cell anemia by converting adult hemoglobin to the fetal form.
Treatments of Sickle cell anemia.
Hydroxyurea, oral arginine (stimulates blood vessel dialation), bone marrow transplants, and gene transport are treatments for this disease.
Polycythemia.
This is an abnormal excess of RBC production that increases viscosity.
Polycythemia Vera.
A bone marrow cancer that is characterized by dizziness and RBC counts that are exceptionally high so blood volume increases and impairs vascular system function.
Secondary Polycythemia.
This appears in low oxygen blood content areas. People living at high altitude often have this. Treatment is diluting with saline infusions.
Blood Doping.
Athletes have RBCs removed and stored for later. EPO releases is triggered when RBCs are removed. When they are infused again, athletes have extra RBCs and more endurance and speed. Unethical.
Leukocytes.
White blood cells. These cells have normal nuclei and organelles. They make up 1% of the blood.
Diapedesis.
When white blood cells leave the blood stream and travel to the site of an effection as part of the immune system.
Amoeboid motion.
The way WBCs travel through tissues.
Positive Chemotaxis.
The process of WBC's following chemical markers.
Leukocytosis.
The production od white blood cells.
Neutrophils.
The most numerous WBC.
Defensins.
This antimicrobial protein is found in Neutrophils along with lysosomes.
Polymorphonuclear leukocytes.
Leukocytes that contain 6 lobed nuclei. (their other name)
Function of Neutrophils.
These WBCs are attracted to sites of infection and are actively phagocytic, especially to bacteria and fungi.
The stained appearence of neutrophils.
These WBCs are stained lilac color and have fine granules that take up acidic and basic dyes.
The stained appearence of eosinophils.
These WBCs have a deep red 2-lobed nucleus. Their large coarse granules stain brick red with acid dyes.
Eosinophils.
These WBCs are lysosome-like but do not have enzymes to specifically digest bacteria. They involved with parasitic worm infections.
Location of eosinophils.
These WBCs are found in loose connective tissue to easily reach their targets.
The two functions of eosinophils.
These WBCs:
1. Phagocitize parasitic worms.
2. Lessen allergic reactions by inactivating inflammatory chemicals.
Basophils are the _____ WBC.
______ are the rarest WBC.
Stained appearence of Basophils.
The WBCs are stained purple-black by basic dyes and have large course granules.
Basophil Function.
These WBCs contain Histamine.
Basophil nucleus shape.
These WBCs have a U or S shaped nucleus.
Histamine.
This is a inflammatory chemical that acts as a vasodialator and attracts WBCs to the site of inflammation.
Lymphocytes.
This is the second most numerous WBC.
Lymphocyte stained appearence.
The WBCs have large dark purple nuclei that take up almost the entire cell.
Lymphocyte function.
These WBCs play a critical role in the immune system. They live in the lymphoid tissues and make B and T cells.
Lymphocyte locations.
These WBCs are found in the thymus and spleen.
T cells.
These cells made by lymphocytes fight virus and tumor cells.
B Cells.
The cells made by lymphocytes convert to plasma cells and make antibodies.
Monocytes.
These are the largest WBCs.
The stained appearence of Monocytes.
The WBCs have pale blue cytoplasm with a dark purple nucleus. Their nuceus is U or kidney shaped.
Monocyte function.
These WBCs can leave the blood stream and differentiate into macrophages and phagotize viruses, bacteria, small parasites, and chronic infections.
Leukopenia.
An abnormally low WBC level that is usually caused by drugs. (glucocorticoids and anticancerdrugs)
Leukemias.
A cancerous condition involving WBCs. This group of cancers have WBCs proliferating out of control.
Lymphocytic Leukemia.
Acute Leukemia.
Myelocytic Leukemia.
Chronic Leukemia.
Leukemia.
In all forms of this disease the bone marrow becomes occupied with cancerous WBCs so other types of cells crowded out.
Leukemia symptoms.
This disease causes anemia, bleeding problems, fever, weight loss, and bone pain. The patients die from infections and hemmorrhages because their WBCs are nonfunctional.
Leukemia treatment.
The disease is treated with irradiation, anticancer drugs, umbilical transplants if match found, and bone marrow transplants
Infectious Mononucleosis.
This is a highly contagious disease with a viral origin. It is caused by the Epstein-barr virus.
Infectious Mononucleosis symptoms and treatment.
This disease causes patients to be tired, achy, have a chronic sore throat, and low grade fever. The only treatment is to rest for a few weeks.
Infectious Mononucleousis hallmark.
This disease exhibits excessive numbers of agranulocytes which are atypical.
Platelets.
These are cell fragments essential to the clotting process.
The componants of platelets.
These contain granules with chemicals that act in the clotting process inluding serotonin, Ca2+, enzymes, ADP, and PDGF.
The formation of platelets is regulated by __________.
The formation of ________ is regulated by Thrombopoietin.
Length of platelet life.
These live only 10 days.
Clotting.
This happens to prevent us from bleeding to death. This is a very fast response and is a carefully controlled sequence of steps.
The steps of clotting.
1. Vascular spasms.
2. Platelet plug formation.
3. Coagulation (blood clotting)
Vascular spasms.
This is a vasoconstriction to minimize blood loss.
The Chemicals released during Platelet plug formation of hemostasis.
Serotonin is released by platelets to enhance the asvular spasm. Endothelin is released by endothelial cells.
Thromboxane A2.
This stimulates vasoconstriction and attracts more platelets to the site for clotting.
Von Willebrand Factor.
This is made by the endothelium when it is damaged to help attract platelets and allow them to adhere to the collagen fibers.
Prostacyclin.
This is a prostaglandin made by intact endothelium cells that prevent platelet aggregation. This limits the platelet plug to the immediate area of the hole.
Fibrin.
This is the molecular glue that helps give the aggregated platelets effectively seal the hole.
____ is released and help attract more platelets to a clotting site.
ADH (it's role in clotting)
____ is released and helps enhance vascular spasms at a clotting site.
Serotonin (it's role in clotting)
____ is generated and released and anhances vascular spasms as well as attracts more platelets to a clotting site.
Thromboxane A2 (it's role in clotting)
The three steps to Coagulation.
1. Prothrombin activator is formed.
2. Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin into thrombin.
3. Thrombin catalyzes the joinging of fibrinogen molecules into the fibrin mesh.
Clotting factors.
These enhance the coagulation process. There are 30.
Anticoagulants.
This are things that inhibit clot formation.
Factor I
Fibrogen
Factor V
Proaccelerin
Factor VII
Proconvertin
Factor IX
Plasma thromboplastin component (PTC)
Factor X
Stuart factor
Factor XII
Hageman factor
Deficiency in Factor VIII results in hemophilia ___.
Deficiency in Factor ___ results in hemophilia A.
Deficiency in Factor IX results in hemophilia ___.
Deficiency in Factor ___ results in hemophilia B.
Deficiency in Factor XI results in hemophilia ___.
Deficiency in Factor __ results in hemophilia C.
Deficiency in Factor ___ results in hemophilia A.
Deficiency in Factor VIII results in hemophilia ___.
Deficiency in Factor __ results in hemophilia B.
Deficiency in Factor IX results in hemophilia ___.
Deficiency in Factor __ results in hemophilia C.
Deficiency in Factor XI results in hemophilia ___.
Factor ___ is the only glycoprotein.
Factor III is the only _________.
Factor ___ is released by platelets.
Factor V (proaccelerin) is released by _____.
Factor ___ is released by bone.
Factor IV (calcium ion) is released by ____.
Factor ___ is activated by negatively charged surfaces.
Factor XII (hageman) is activated by ___________.
Blood CLotting Factors and their names.
I-fibrinogen
II-prothrombin
III-tissue factor (TF)
IV-calcium ion
V-proaccelerin
VI-NONE
VII-proconvertin
VIII-antihemophilic factor
IX-plasma thromboplastin componant (PTC)
X-Stuart factor
XI-Plasma thromboplastin antecedent (PTA)
XII-Hagemen factor
XIII-fibrin stabilizing factor (FSF)
These factors all need vitamin K for sythesizing.
____ is required for factors II, VII, IX, X.
These factors are not synthesized in the liver.
Factors III and IV are not synthesized in the ______.
The Extrinsic Pathway.
This clotting pathway is faster and can start within 15 seconds.
Clot refraction.
This is furthur stabilization of a clot after 30-60 minutes. The platelets contract, pulling the injured ends of the blood vessels together and squeeze the serum from the mass compacting the clot.
PDGF.
Platelet Derived Growth Factor starts wound healing immediatly so fibroblasts can divide and rebuild the wall.
Fibrinolysis.
This removes the clot after a vessel has healed.
Plasmin.
This is the natural clot buster. It is a plasma protein that circulates as plasminogen and activated by tPA.
tPA.
Tissue plasminogen activator activates plasmin and is secreted by the endothelial cells. It converts plasminogen into active plasmin.
Antithrombin and Protein C.
Most thrombin binds to fibrin to prevent systemic clotting, but unbound thrombin is inactivated by ____ and ____.
Heparin.
This is an anticoagulant contained in mast cells and basophils as well as being found on the surface of endothelial cells. It inhibits thrombin (by enhancing antithrombin III) and inhibits clotting (by inhibiting the intrinsic pathway).
Secretions of endothelial cells.
Nitric oxide and prostacyclin are secreted by _____ to prevent platelet aggregation.
Thrombus.
A clot that forms and persists in an unbroken vessel.
Thrombus.
A clot that forms and persists in an unbroken vessel.
Embolus (emboli).
A clot that is free floating in the blood stream.
Embolus (emboli).
A clot that is free floating in the blood stream.
Embolism.
A wedged clot in the blood vessel.
Embolism.
A wedged clot in the blood vessel.
Pulmonary embolism.
A clot that impairs the body's ability to get enough oxygen.
Pulmonary embolism.
A clot that impairs the body's ability to get enough oxygen.
Cerebral embolism.
A clot that causes a stroke.
Cerebral embolism.
A clot that causes a stroke.
Causes of Thromboembolic conditions.
These conditions are caused by anything that roughens up endothelium cells like inflammation, althersclerosis, diabetes, and hypertension. Also, slow moving blood, bed ridden patients, and long unmoving flights cause accumulation of clotting factors.
Medications used to treat clots.
Warfarin, Aspirin, and Heparin.
Aspirin.
This med is an antiprostaglandin that inhibits the formation of thrombolin A2.
Heparin.
This med is injected clinically to prevent clots.
Warfarin.
This med used to be a rat poison. It is also called coumadin. It is a mainstay for people with atrial fibrillation.
DIC.
This condition is characterized by systemic clot formation followed by an inability to clot. It is a complication of pregnancy, septicemia, and transfusion reactions.
Thrombocytopenia.
This is a lack of platelets causing spontaneous bleeding in small blood vessels. Normal movement can cause petechiae. Treated with platelet transfusions. Anything affecting bone marrow causes this.
Impaired liver function effects on clotting.
This causes a lack of procoagulants and is treated with vitamin K shots if that is deficient.
Hemophilia.
These are genetic disorders seen mostly in men where the person lacks a clotting factor.
Hemophelia A.
This disease is a lack of factor VIII (Antihemophelic factor) and found in males only.
Hemophelia B.
This disease is a lack of factor IX (plasma thromboplastin componant) and is found in only males.
Hemophelia C.
This disease is a lack in factor XI (plasma thromboplastin antecedent) and is found in both genders. It is mild since IX (plasma thromboplastin componant) can also be activated by VII (proconvertin).
Packed red blood cells.
This transfusion is preferred when a patient only needs to restore oxygen carrying capacity.
Loss of ____ % causes weakness and pallor.
Loss of 15%-30% blood causes ______________.
Loss of ___ % results in severe shock and is fatal unless replaced.
Loss of more then 30% of blood results in __________.
Donating blood process.
When blood is donated it is mixed with an anticoagulant that prevents Ca2+ ions. The shelf life 4C for 35 days.
Blood type ___ is the universal doner.
Blood type O is the universal ________.
Blood type ___ is the universal recipient.
Blood type AB is the universal ________.
Solutions used to increase blood volume...
Saline, ringers solution, and electrolyte solution are used for...
Common tests done.
Hematocrit, differential white blood cell counts (tells type of infection), prothrombin time and platelet counts (indicate clotting issues).
Cause of renal failure.
The effects of free hemoglobin passing into the kidney tubules.