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495 Cards in this Set

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1Drugs that work by hindering a neurotransmitter's release from receptor sites or by blocking the neurotransmitter's receptor sites are known as _________ .

Antagonists

Some neurons contain a ________ sheath, a fatty tissue covering that surrounds the axon and works to speed up the neural impulse (the electrical signal traveling down the axon).

Myelin

The ________ nervous system includes the sensory and motor neurons that join the brain and spinal cord to the remaining body parts.

Peripheral

The body’s internal environment is regulated by the _________ nervous system by controlling the working of glands, organs, and certain muscles.

Autonomic
Control within the Autonomic nervous system is generally done involuntarily but sometimes it can be done voluntarily (with help from the central nervous system).

Communication across the synapse is achieved with _______, chemical molecules that are contained in vesicles, small sacs within the axon terminal (end of the axon).

Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft when the action potential arrives at the end of the neuron; any neurotransmitters that are left in the synaptic gap are broken down or absorbed back into the neuron.
A ______ period is a period of time during which a cell cannot repeat a certain action or the time required for an excitable membrane to become ready for a second stimulus once it returns to its resting state after an excitation.
Refractory
____________ neurons take in information from sense organs and body tissues and transmit it to the spinal cord and brain.
Sensory
Sensory neurons are also known as afferent neurons.
The body's ________ system is an organization of neurons, neurotransmitters, and brain structures that function as the framework for transporting information throughout the body.
Nervous
Each neurotransmitter affects behavior differently because different neural pathways are made up of different neurons and have different purposes; _____ is an example of a neurotransmitter that assists in controlling sleep and awakening.
Serotonin
Serotonin, Low levels of this neurotransmitter in the brain are associated with forms of depression.
Certain drugs that mimic specific neurotransmitters or cause more of the neurotransmitter to become available by inhibiting its reuptake are known as __________.
Agonists
Information is transmitted from the spinal cord and brain to sense organs and body tissues via _______ neurons.
Motor
Motor neurons are also known as efferent neurons.
When a signal from a sensory receptor or another nerve cell comes in through a neuron’s dendrites, it is passed along when it triggers a/an _______ potential that travels down the axon and then activates activity in the neuron, muscle, or gland that meets up with the axon.
Action
When the signal arrives, the portion of the axon closest to the dendrites is depolarized meaning positive ions are allowed inside the axon; the depolarization continues down the axon as the action potential continues to its destination.
A neuron also contains ___________ which are short, bush-like fibers that take in information from outside the cell.
Dendrites
The _________ nervous system is a subgroup of the autonomic nervous system that prepares a person for action.
Sympathetic
For example, the Sympathetic nervous system can speed up your heartbeat, raise your blood sugar, and stimulate your sweat glands when you are alarmed.
Another portion of the neuron, the __________, contains long fibers (which can range up to several feet long) that carry information along to other neurons, glands, or muscles.
Axon
___________receptors are parts of your body that detect heat, light, and touch and pass those stimuli to the brain.
Sense
Once stimuli sent by sense receptors reach the brain, they trigger thoughts in the brain about those stimuli and cause behavioral responses.
Fluid inside a “resting” axon contains mostly negatively charged ions, but fluid outside the axon contains more positively charged ions; this arrangement, known as the ________ potential, is sustained because the axon’s membrane will not allow positive ions into the cell unless the cell receives a signal from the dendrites.
Resting
The junction between one end of a neuron and the beginning of another neuron is known as a _________.
Synapse
The small gap between neurons is called the synaptic gap.
The ___________ of a neuron contains structures that help to keep the cell alive.
Cell Body
The ________ nervous system is a subgroup of the autonomic nervous system that operates during the body’s states of relaxation.
Parasympathetic
This system deactivates the body systems that are activated by the sympathetic nervous system. Examples of this system include decreased heart rate and breathing rate.
Neurons that communicate with other neurons are known as ___________ .
Interneurons
______________ are also known as association neurons.
The _________ nervous system is a branch of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movement of skeletal muscles.
Somatic
The ___________ nervous system carries messages from the muscles, sense organs, and skin to the central nervous system and messages from the central nervous system to skeletal muscles (regulation of the body's external environment).
The ________ is a part of the brain that starts where the spinal cord enters the skull.
Brain-stem
The Brain-stem is the brain’s biologically oldest region
The portion of the brain known as the _______ that sits on top of the brainstem and receives information regarding touch, taste, sight, and hearing and relays it to higher parts of the brain.
Thalamus
The _________ nervous system includes the brain and the spinal cord.
Central
The ________ lobe of the brain is the area from which visual signals are transmitted.
Occipital
__________’s area in the brain is specifically known to be involved in the understanding and comprehension of spoken language.
Wernicke
The brain lobes that play an important role in manipulating objects, visuospatial processing (awareness of where our hands and feet are and what they’re doing), and integrating sensory information (touch, heat, pressure, and pain) are known as the ________ lobe.
Parietal
Chemical messengers from one cell (or groups of cells) in the body to another are known as __________.
Hormones
Glands in the endocrine system release hormones into the bloodstream and in turn, the hormones affect body functions.
Stress response through the production of corticosteroids and catecholamines is regulated by the _______ glands.
Adrenal
The _________ nervous system is a branch of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movement of skeletal muscles.
Somatic
The ___________ nervous system carries messages from the muscles, sense organs, and skin to the central nervous system and messages from the central nervous system to skeletal muscles (regulation of the body's external environment).
The ________ is a part of the brain that starts where the spinal cord enters the skull.
Brain-stem
The Brain-stem is the brain’s biologically oldest region
The portion of the brain known as the _______ that sits on top of the brainstem and receives information regarding touch, taste, sight, and hearing and relays it to higher parts of the brain.
Thalamus
The _________ nervous system includes the brain and the spinal cord.
Central
The ________ lobe of the brain is the area from which visual signals are transmitted.
Occipital
__________’s area in the brain is specifically known to be involved in the understanding and comprehension of spoken language.
Wernicke
The brain lobes that play an important role in manipulating objects, visuospatial processing (awareness of where our hands and feet are and what they’re doing), and integrating sensory information (touch, heat, pressure, and pain) are known as the ________ lobe.
Parietal
Stress response through the production of corticosteroids and catecholamines is regulated by the _______ glands.
Adrenal
Hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior are regulated by neural networks within the ________ of the brain.
Hypothalamus
___________is a genetic disorder of metabolism; in this disorder, the presence of a particular gene inhibits the individual’s body from metabolizing the amino acid phenylalanine.
PKU
PKU is also known as Phenylketonuria. This disorder can produce a type of developmental disability. PKU tests can detect this genetic problem at birth and certain dietary methods can be used to regulate the disorder.
Within the brain, the ____________ system is known to contain structures that are involved in emotion, motivation, and emotional association with memory.
Limbic
This system contains a variety of structures including the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala
The _________ is a gland organ that regulates sugar metabolism through the secretion of hormones such as glucagon and insulin.
Pancreas
____________ are endocrine glands that secrete sex hormones.
Gonads
Female gonads are ovaries and male gonads are testes.
__________’s area within the frontal lobe is involved in speech production, language processing, and speech comprehension.
Broca
If an individual experiences damage to Broca's area, he or she can usually understand speech but experiences difficulty speaking.
The ________ of the brain is known to process memory.
Hippocampus

At about one year of age, a baby enters the _________ stage of language development and speaks only one word at a time (often that one word has a variety of meanings).

One Word

Noam __________ (b. 1928) proposed that children have an inborn mechanism called a Language acquisition device (LAD) which allows them to use and interpret language.

Chomsky

” ------------” refers to the parts of a person’s biological, genetic heritage that influence development.
Nature
In contrast, "nurture" refers to the environment’s effects on our development. Differences in intelligence are the result of an interaction between nature and nurture.
The stage of language development involves babies making a variety of sounds including ones that appear to be ones used in their language.
Babbling
This stage generally lasts from age 4 months to 1 year of age.

____________ is the tendency to view an object or an activity in one particular way.

Functional Fixedness

__________, is used by children ages 18 to 24 months and involves two-word speech, often a noun combined with a verb or an adjective followed by a noun.

Telegraphic Speech
___________ is a property of the mind that measures how well an individual solves problems.
Intelligence
Intelligence can also be defined as a measure of general mental ability.
The ________ is a part of the brain (more specifically a part of the limbic system) that has been associated with memory difficulties.
Hippocampus

___________ are deliberate methods used in order to store information in long or short-term memory.

Mnemonic Strategies

_________ saves incoming information registered by the sense for only a fraction of a second.

Sensory Memory

A ___________ is the smallest unit of meaning in a spoken language.
Morpheme
Often a morpheme is a word itself.

__________ problem solving involves trying random attempts at solutions to a problem until a solution is found that fixes the problem.

Trial Error

Encoding involves awareness, the ______________ of awareness on a particular set of events or stimuli.

Selective Focusing

_____________ is the study of mental processes used in thinking, using language, and remembering.

Cognitive Psychology

___________ is the transformation and transfer of information into a memory system.

Encoding

Language rules determine ________, how morphemes are combined in order to form sentences.
Syntax

______________ occurs when someone is unable to remember events from the past due to a psychological or physiological trauma.

Amnesia
Another type of forgetting, motivated forgetting, occurs when an individual forgets things because they are too unpleasant to think about.

__________ is where the knowledge of language and vocabulary concepts and rules is stored.

Semantic Memory

_____________ is a repetitive behavior or mental activity in which one feels an irrational need to perform a certain action.

Compulsion

The ____________ approach to problem solving involves recalling information from your memory that is pertinent to the problem.

Information Retrieval

The ____________ approach to problem solving involves recalling information from memory that is pertinent to the problem.

Information Retrieval
Freud attributed many failures in memory to ________, the process of retaining disturbing thoughts and feelings (often related to one’s childhood) in the unconscious.

Repression

___________ is a type of long-term memory involving remembering how our own memory systems work and how we can use them in retrieving stored information.
Metamemory
FYI: Elaborative rehearsal involves storing information in the long-term memory by manipulating the information in order to give it meaning.
Psychologist __ ________ used operant conditioning principles to explain language development in children.
BF Skinner

____________ is the retention of associations and skilled patterns of responses into long-term memory.

Procedural Memory
An example of procedural memory would be remembering how to drive a car.

If an individual pays attention to sensory memory, that information enters ___________.

Short-term Memory

Short-term memory is limited to duration of about 15-30 seconds and limited capacity of about seven pieces of information. In contrast, long-term memory is an unlimited (and possibly permanent) storehouse of memories.
__________ is a mnemonic strategy that involves organizing material through grouping pieces of information into meaningful units.

Chunking

_________ is the ability to store and retrieve information.

Memory

Psychologist ___________ (1863-1945) concluded in 1904 that intelligence is made up of two components: a g-factor (general intelligence) and s-factors (a collection of specific cognitive intellectual skills).

Charles Spearman

Spearman came to these conclusions using a procedure called factor analysis.

In modern Psychology, most who study intelligence recognize that there are ___________, meaning that there are many different problem solving abilities and components of .

Multiple Intelligences

_____________ is the process of getting information out of one’s memory.

Information Retrieval

____________ (1857-1911) was a French psychologist who is known for having published the first modern intelligence test.

Alfred Binet

____________ is an example of a mnemonic strategy that involves purposeful, conscious repetition of information.

Rehearsal

A __________ is a tendency to approach problems in a certain manner.

Mental Set

Lewis Terman revised the Binet-Simon intelligence scale in 1916 by retaining the concept of mental and chronological ages but adding the concept of __________ ; the new scale was known as the Stanford-Binet scale.

Intelligence Quotient

The __________ model states that, although there is only one memory, information can be processed within that memory at various levels or degrees.

Processing Momery

A _______ is a measure of an individual’s general intellectual abilities, often referred to as "IQ".

G-Score

___________ is the chronological age that corresponds to a given performance level on an intelligence test.

Mental Age

___________ is a type of long-term memory that involves life events and experiences.

Episodic Memory

____________ is the process of identifying associations made at the time the memory was formed in order to recall or retrieve a memory.

Priming

Creating a mental picture of an event or object in order to enhance retrieval is known as ___________.
Imagery
People use __________ as a system for relaying ideas from one person to another.

Language

___________ are models of concepts often used as a representative of a particular category.

Prototypes

In the ___________ stage of psycho-social development, a child is affected by the reliability and predictability of the care provider. This stage spans from birth to 1 year of age.

Trust vs Mistrust

Learning to exercise independence and freedom of choice along with self-control is the goal of the ______________ stage of psycho-social development. This stage lasts from ages 2 to 3.

Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt

In the ____________ stage of psycho-social development, a child is maturing as a worker and producer. This stage lasts from ages 6 to 11.

Industry vs Inferiority

Development of a reliable sense of self and considering multiple roles occurs in the ___________ stage of psycho-social development. This stage is present in adolescence (ages 12 to 18).

Identity vs Role Confusion

Individuals work to break away from their family and form new relationships with others in the ______________ stage of psycho-social development. This stage is present in young adulthood (ages 18 to 35).

Intimacy vs Isolation

Individuals work to support in the establishment and direction of the next generation in the _______________ stage of psycho-social development. This stage is present in ages 36-55.

Generativity vs Stagnation

In the ___________ stage of psycho-social development, individuals reflect back on life and work to achieve a sense of fulfillment throughout the stages of life. This stage occurs from age 55+.

Integrity vs Despair

_____________ is the process of gathering new information about the environment and applying it to what is already known.

Assimilation
In addition, _____________ is the process of creating new concepts in order to handle new information.
A ___________ is a group of people born at the same time.
Cohort

Children in the __________ operational stage develop conservation and can think logically in the context of concrete problems and begin to develop concepts and can organize the concepts into categories. This stage lasts from age 6-12 years.

Concrete

5 ___________ are substances that can lead to birth defects or developmental malformations. Babies are most likely to be harmed by substances in the first trimester of pregnancy.

Teratogens
The biological and genetic contributions to an individual’s behavior are represented by the term “__________.”
Nature
The term __________ represents the environmental factors that influence development.
Nurture
Children in the _____________ operational stage of development can think abstractly, hypothetically, and scientifically. This stage lasts from age 12+.

Formal

Children in the ___________ stage have developed object permanence, do not use logical reasoning, lack conservation, and are highly egocentric. This stage lasts from age 2 to age 6.

Pre-operational
_________________ is the ability to understand that some aspects of objects such as mass, volume, or weight do not change even though the object’s appearance has been changed somehow.

Conservation

The baby developing in the mother’s womb progresses from zygote to ______ to fetus as it progresses from conception to birth. It is formed when the zygote is implanted in the uterus and vital organs and body systems begin to form.
Embryo
A ______________ is a one-celled organism that is formed when a sperm penetrates an egg.
Zygote

The growth and development from infancy to childhood occurs in a ____________. This means that the head and upper trunk develop before the lower trunk and feet.

Cephalocaudal Direction

____________ can occur if a mother drinks alcohol during pregnancy and can cause birth defects such as retardation, low birth weight, and distinct facial characteristics.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

Psychologists are tracking the behavior of a specific group of individuals over a long period of time in a ___________ study.

Longitudinal

In Lawrence Kohlberg’s (1927-1987) _________ level of moral development, children behave because they are ordered to and will be punished if they do not obey.

Preconventional

________ is the emotional connection between an infant and a caretaker. This process begins at birth. In his studies involving baby monkeys raised in isolation, Harry Harlow showed that although the monkeys’ physical needs were met, they suffered severe behavioral problems. This study showed that this is essential for healthy social development.
Attachment
In the ___________ level of moral development, children’s behavior is based on trust, understanding, and knowledge of social order.

Conventional

_______ is a quick and relatively permanent type of learning that occurs for a narrow time frame early in life.

Imprinting

___________ concluded that imprinting occur es for a limited time in which this learning can occur is known as a critical period.

Konrad Lorenz
In Erik _______’s (1902-1994) stages of psycho-social development, each stage is marked by a conflict which, if resolved, will result in favorable outcome and by an important event that the conflict resolves around.

Erikson

At birth, ____________ is the most highly developed sense.

Touch

Vision is the least developed (an infant is nearsighted and is interested in novelty). In a baby, depth perception does not develop until around 6 months of age.

In the ___________, children lack object permanence (the ability to understand that an object still exists even if it can’t be sensed) and think only in terms of what they can sense and what they can do with those things they sense. This stage lasts from ages 0 to 2 years.

Sensorimotor Stage

__________ examined differences in the moral development of males and females and proposed that gender differences when a child is young are in part due to the child’s relationship with his or her mother.

Carol Gilligan

__________ is marked by an increase in sex hormones and is the period in which a person becomes capable of sexual reproduction.

Puberty

Physical changes puberty include a growth spurt, voice changes, and increase in sex hormones; in addition, secondary sex characteristics develop such as breasts in females and beard growth in males. In addition to biological development occurring in adolescence, intellectual development also occurs such as abstract reasoning, independence, and questioning.

_________ (1896-1980) studies children’s thinking and how children organize and adapt to the environment.

Jean Piaget

Piaget believed that changes in the ways in which a child understands the world is the result of disequilibrium. In order to make sense of this disequilibrium, the child changes the way he or she understands the world.

In ___________ studies, psychologists examine and compare people of different age groups at the same point in time.

Cross Sectional

A problem with cross-sectional studies is that they can be confounded meaning that it cannot be known if differences in the age groups are due to changes in age or to differences in the periods of time in which the people grew up.

The ____________ of aging states that activity is vital for maintaining quality of life. Followers of this theory believe that activities of earlier periods of life should be maintained as long as possible.

Activity Theory

The ____________ states that as people age, their withdrawal from society is acceptable because it relieves them of responsibilities and roles that have become difficult.

Disengagement Aging Theory

Individuals exhibiting ____________ realize that laws are situational and can be changed and behavior is based on chosen ethics and morals.

Postconventional Morality

Children work to plan and carry out tasks for the sake of actively doing the task in the ____________ stage of psycho-social development. This stage lasts from ages 3 to 5.

Initiative vs Guilt

____________ is the term used to describe patterns of behavior expected of people according to their Gender.

Gender Stereotyping
This occurs because of parenting differences in a child’s upbringing and because of differences in children’s socialization experiences. Eleanor Maccoby has noticed that children with various personality types play together just because they are of the same gender. Gender identify, the recognition of being male or females, occurs by age 3. Gender roles involve behaviors associated with being male or female.
Infants are born with _____________, unlearned responses to stimuli. Examples, are the rooting, sucking, swallowing, and startle reflexes.
Reflexes

____________ theorized that moral development occurs in three levels.

Lawrence Kohlberg

It was found that ___________ was based on caring.

Young Girls Morality

It was found that _____________ was based on justice.

Young Boys Morality

Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) developed __________ psychology, a school of thought that focuses on the totality of perception in describing the functioning of the mind.

Gestalt
Wertheimer believed that in order to understand a conscious experience, a person did not have to rely on separating the experience into its components but rather, perceive the experience as a whole.

Wilhelm ________ set up the first psychology lab; the location of this lab was Leipzig, Germany.

Wundt

John ________ (1632-1704), was an English philosopher and founder of British Empiricism. The English brought philosophy to the doorstep of early psychology.

Locke

Unlike structuralism, the theory of ______________ was not as interested in the basic form of a mental experience but rather on how those mental experiences and behavior patterns were useful for people and helped people to adapt to their environments and social systems.

Functionalism
The most famous psychologist in this line of thought was William James (1842-1910). This theory was largely an American one and was well established by the 1920s. In today’s world, psychologists study the structure and function of behavior. In current psychology, many questions arise that cannot be understood by simply observing behavior or completing an experiment.

Philosopher Rene Descartes believed in a concept called interactive _________, meaning that although the mind and body are separate entities they interact with each other.

Dualism

The _________ effect occurs when subjects behave differently than normal because they know they are being exposed to a certain treatment.
Placebo
In order to assess the extent to which individuals exhibit the placebo effect, subjects in the control group are sometimes given a fake special treatment (called a placebo).
A _________ study is an experiment in which subjects do not know whether they are receiving the actual treatment or a placebo.
Blind
A double blind study occurs when neither the subject nor the experimenters know if the subjects receive actual treatment or a placebo.
The birth of psychology as a study came in 1879 when a man named Wilhelm __________ (1832-1920) opened a research lab in Germany for the study of psychology.

Wundt

Wundt focused on the use of the scientific methods in psychology and the technique of introspection.
A French philosopher named ___________(1596-1650)is known to have believed that the function of the human body was an integral part of psychology in addition to the soul or mind of the person.
Descartes
Rene Descartes believed in a complex mind/body interaction.
The theory that explains human behavior in terms of learned responses to predictable patterns of external stimuli or observable events is called _______.

Behaviorism

Examples of behaviorists are Pavlov (known for classical conditioning studies) and Skinner (known for operant conditioning studies).
Researchers often use ________ , a research tool in which participants are asked to fill out questionnaires inquiring about their feelings, views, or behaviors.
Surveys
This research method allows researchers to determine relationships between behaviors and attitudes or the regularity with which individuals support and do various things.

In correlational studies, a __________ generally implies that as one variable increases, the other variable also increases or as one variable decreases, the other variable also decreases.

Positive Relationship

The theory that consciousness is made up of basic elements that are combined in different ways to produce various perceptions is known as _____________.

Structuralism

This method was based on developments made by Wilhelm Wundt and advanced by Edward Titchener.
British philosopher John Locke (1632-1704) founder of the philosophical school of thought known as _____________ believed that the concept of the mind is developed through experience.
Empiricism
This philosophy taught that each individual is born with a mind that is empty, a mind that is a blank slate.
A research method known as _____________ studies involve examining the relationship between two variables.
Correlational
In these studies, neither variable is manipulated and therefore it cannot be known whether a change in one variable resulted in a change in the other variable; only how the changes in one variable are related to the changes in the other variable can be assessed.
In current psychology, the __________ approach to studying behavior involves examining how physiological and biochemical processes might result in psychological occurrences.

Biological

In this approach, behavior is understood by examining the actions of the nervous system, genes, neurotransmitters, etc.
In assessing cause-and-effect relationships between two variables, the independent variable represents the “cause” and the ___________ variable represents the “effect.”
Dependent
Edward ___________ (1867-1927) is noted for having set up the first psychology lab in the U.S.
Titchener
Titchener, a well-known structuralist founded a psychology lab at Cornell University.

__________ (1904-1990) was the leading exemplar in the theory of behaviorism a school of thought that studies humans’ and animals’ physiological responses to external stimuli.

B.F. Skinner

Skinner focused on patterns of observable responses to external stimuli and rewards.
In the research method called _____________ observation, behavior is studied in a life-like setting.
Naturalistic
In these studies, researchers/observers must not interfere with subjects’ ongoing behavior and they also must agree on what is happening.

____________ is the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes.

Psychology
Psychology began as an attempt to answer philosophical questions concerning human nature using methods borrowed from other sciences including physics and physiology.
The __________ approach to studying behavior claims that people are driven by a desire for favorable growth and development instead of by factors such as genetic codes or environmental stimuli.

Humanistic

In order to achieve optimal growth and development (self-actualization), humanists believe that individuals must express their unique desires, needs, and abilities.
The ____________ approach explains behavior in terms of expectations, thoughts, and feelings.
Cognitive
Using this approach, cognitivists study processes such as memory or problem solving.
In a correlational study, a ____________ relationship means that high scores on one variable are paired with low scores on the other variable.
Negative
In his theory known as ____________, John B. Watson argued in 1913 that behavior can be better described in basic acts or behaviors than in terms of intent.
Behaviorism
This theory seeks to explain behavior in terms of measurable or observable outcomes or responses.

Psychiatrist _________ (1856-1939) took the psychodynamic approach to understanding behavior and believed that the most crucial urges are ones that are sexual and aggressive.

Sigmund Freud
____________ is the technique favored by structuralists for examining mental experience.
Introspection
This technique involves studying one's conscious thoughts and feelings. This method was first used in Wilhem Wundt's laboratory and later was refined by Edward Titchener.
William __________(1842-1910) is credited with having introduced the first study of psychology in the classroom.
James
James was an American philosopher and professor at Harvard University.
In examining cause-and-effect relationships, subjects in the ___________ group are exposed to the presumed “cause” and those in the control group are not exposed to the “cause.”
Experimental
In such experiments, subjects are randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group in order to avoid manipulation of a subject’s behavior.

Agreement among observers on what is occurring in a naturalistic observation is known as __________reliability.

Inter Rater
Inter-rater reliability is also known as “inter-judge” or “inter-observer” reliability.

A ___________ is a research method that involves a very deep analysis of one individual.

Case Study
In fact, Freud’s psychoanalysis theory was developed on a sequence of case studies.

In the ___________ approach to understanding behavior, thoughts, and feelings result from inborn drives and how humans suppress and express those urges.

Psychodynamic
Later psychodynamic theorists focused on interpersonal relationships and resulting connections a primary drive; thus, these theorists believe that much of one’s behavior is unconscious and originates in childhood.
The process of learning a conditioned response is known as ____________.
Acquisition

In operant conditioning, ___________ is the process of following an event with a second event meant to make the repetition of the first event more likely. The second event is called the reinforcer.

Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, a ____________ involves taking away an unwanted or unpleasant stimulus.

Negative Reinforcement
For example, if a rat is given an electrical shock when it presses a bar, it is less likely to press the bar (in an attempt to avoid the electrical shock).

In operant conditioning, _______________ involves presenting a stimulus in order to increase the probability that a particular response will occur.

Positive Reinforcement
An example of positive reinforcement is giving a dog a treat after it follows a command to roll over.

When Pavlov’s neutral stimulus, the bell, became capable of producing the response, salivation, the neutral stimulus became a _______________.

Conditioned Stimulus

______________ is a type of non-associative learning in which the progressive magnitude of responses to stimuli follows repeated exposure to a stimulus.

Sensitization

A process known as _____________ occurred with the dogs in Pavlov’s experiment when they began to salivate after exposure to the bell.

Learning
Because of Pavlov’s experiments, it is now believed that what an individual (human or animal) learns reveals itself as an expectationthat the unconditioned stimulus will become evident after the controlled stimulus. Conditioned responses can generally be considered preparatory responses because they prepare the organism for the unconditioned stimulus (and resulting unconditioned response) that predictably manifests after the conditioned stimulus. If meat powder unsurprisingly shows up after the ringing of the bell, then the dog goes ahead and begins to salivate when the bell rings.

A relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience is known as __________.

Learning

In ___________ ______________ the type of behavior exhibited by the organism is reflexive and elicited.

Classical Conditioning

In _______________ the type of behavior exhibited by the organism is voluntary and emitted.

Operant Conditioning

__________ first studied classical conditioning.

Ivan Pavlov

Pavlov examined a four step learning procedure involving reflexes.
____________ occurs in classical conditioning when the controlled stimulus is presented time after time without the unconditioned stimulus and therefore, the conditioned response disappears.
Extinction
For example, if the ringing of a bell is repeatedly presented without being followed by meat powder, then the dogs will stop salivating to the ringing of the bell.

In Pavlov’s experiment, the dog’s salivation in response to the conditioned (neutral) stimulus, the bell, is called the _____________.

Conditioned Response

In operant conditioning, ____________ involves a decrease in the desired behavior.

Punishment
Punishment is not generally referred to asa "positive" or "negative.” However, it is good to note that positive and negative punishment do not refer to "good or bad" or "pleasant or unpleasant."

___________ is a change in responsiveness in which an organism displays decreased responsiveness to the stimulus after repetitive exposure to the stimulus. For example, when a stuffed hawk is placed inside the cage of a song bird, the bird reacts as if the hawk were a real predator; however, the bird soon learns that the hawk is not a real predator.

Habituation
In operant conditioning, the subject must first demonstrate the response that the experimenter is planning on rewarding. ______________ is the name given to the first few steps needed in order for the subject to take part in the behavior that is to be rewarded. For example, if a monkey is to be rewarded for pressing a pedal, it must first learn to go near the pedal in the operant box, touch the box, and press the pedal.
Shaping

In classical conditioning, the response of interest is known as the __________. Pavlov’s dogs’ salivation (unconditioned response) was a result of the unconditioned stimulus, the meat powder.

Unconditioned Response

A __________, meaning one that would not automatically produce the unconditioned response was a bell.

Neutral Stimulus

The neutral stimulus used in this scenario by Pavlov was a bell.

___________ involves the learning of an association between a response and a stimulus or two stimuli.

Associative Learning

____________ is learning that generates changes in responding by pairing two stimuli together.

Classical Conditioning

____________ indicates that the stimulus was applied.

Positive Punishment
Negative punishment indicates that the stimulus was removed.

In classical conditioning, the __________ already produces the response of interest.

Unconditioned Stimulus
In Pavlov's experiment the meat powder is the unconditioned stimulus, would cause the dogs to salivate.

__________ is well known for his work in operant conditioning and is known for having created a device called an operant box.

BF Skinner
The operant box is also known as a Skinner box.

_____________ is the use of consequences to alter the occurrence and form of behavior.

Operant Conditioning

In operant conditioning, also known as _____________, an organism learns an association between a stimulus and a response that follows it.

Instrumental Conditioning

Learning the association between the ____________ will increase or decrease the frequency of the response, depending on the quality of the stimulus (enjoyable or unpleasant).

Stimulus and Response

In _________ learning, the individual does not immediately express the learning in a demonstrated response; however the learning occurs without apparent reinforcement and is applied in later situations.

Latent Learning

In observational learning, the people from whom we learn are known as ____________.

Models

In operant conditioning, when a stimulus is applied and desired behavior _______________ occurs.

Decreased Positive Punishment

Followers of the _____________ believe that much of our learning occurs through watching what happens to other people, often while in social situations.

Social Learning Theory

___________ is a type of problem solving behavior that involves a new way to solve a problem or organize stimuli.

Insight
An individual does not necessarily have to have had the specific behavior reinforced in order to use his or her insight.

In operant conditioning, when a stimulus is removed and a certain behavior increases, ______________ occurs.

Negative Reinforcement

____________ involves the application of principles of operant and classical conditioning in order to change behavior.

Behavior Modification
An example of this application is rewarding a child’s polite behavior but ignoring his or her temper tantrum.

A ___________ involves giving reinforcement after the same period of time has elapsed.

Fixed Interval Schedule

For example, a monkey would be given a banana 10 seconds after it pushed a pedal.

Psychologist ___________ (b. 1925) initiated the social learning theory and is most often associated with observational learning.

Albert Bandura

In a ______________ of reinforcement, reinforcement is given each time after a set number of responses have occurred.

Fixed Ratio Schedule

A monkey receives a banana after pushing a pedal four times; this is an example of a fixed ration reinforcement schedule.

In _____________, evidence of learning is manifested through behavior happening more or less often.

Operant Conditioning

____________ results from situations in which no perceived connection between a response and a reinforcer exists and thus, the individual is lead to believe that responses and outcomes/rewards are unrelated. When a subject believes his or her behavior has no effect upon a reward, the individual becomes apathetic or unresponsive and give up.

Learned Helplessness
In an experiment by a Psychologist named Albert ____________ (b. 1925) in the area of observational learning, children who had observed an adult punching a clown doll, were more likely to punch the doll when they were frustrated than those children who had not observed the adult’s behavior.
Bandura
In operant conditioning, ______________ can occur if the response no longer results in reinforcement.
Extinction

_____________ involves learning a connection between two stimuli.

Cognitive Learning

The ____________ of learning states that in order for learning to occur, a stimulus must provide the subject information about the probability that certain events will occur.

Contingency Theory

____________ was a contingency theorist.

Robert Rescorla

In operant conditioning, when a stimulus is removed and a certain behavior decreases, _____________ occurs.

Negative Punishment

In one incidence, a monkey receives a banana after pushing a pedal seven times and then in another incidence, it receives the banana after 3 pushes of the pedal; this is an example of a _______________.

Variable Ratio Reinforcement Schedule

_______________ occurs as a result of observing, retaining, and replicating behavior that is observed in other individuals.

Observational Learning
In this type of learning, a person does not personally need to be reinforced or punished in order to engage in a behavior more or less often; rather, the individual learns consequences associated with certain behaviors by watching them happen to other people and then applying lessons learned to his or her own life.

In a ________________ of reinforcement, the reinforcement is given after a variable interval of time has passed.

Variable Interval Schedule

In operant conditioning, when a stimulus is applied and desired behavior ________________ occurs.

Increases Positive Reinforcement

_______________ are rules used to determine when reinforcement will be given.

Reinforcement Schedules
On a variable interval schedule, the amount of time between reinforcements continues to change. For example, in one incidence the monkey receives a banana seven seconds after pushing a pedal and in another incidence, receives a banana nine seconds after pushing the pedal.

____________ is an eating disorder in which individuals are obsessed with food but avoid eating it and therefore, their body weight often decreases well below normal levels.

Anorexia Nervosa
In this disorder, starvation occurs due to recurring calorie restrictions.
The _______________ is a part of the brain involved in regulation of thirst, hunger, sexual motivation, and temperature.
Hypothalamus

____________ (1908-1970) proposed a motivational theory in which individuals must first meet basic survival needs before they can attend to higher needs.

Abraham Maslow

The ____________ ranked seven needs of humans and stated that whatever is lowest on the hierarchy and has not been fulfilled will motivate us before needs higher on the hierarchy. Physiological needs (food, water, shelter) are lowest on the hierarchy while the need for self-actualization is highest on the hierarchy.

Hierarchy of Needs
_________ is a body hormone produced by the pancreas that converts glucose into a stored form.
Insulin

__________ is a neurotransmitter used by many of the brains neural circuits to deliver pain signals to the central nervous system.

Substance P

The __________ theory states that with an emotional response, the arousal (from the sympathetic nervous system) and the subjective emotional response (from the brain cortex) occur at the same time.

Cannon-Bard

The theories of ____________ state that stimuli in one’s external environment can motivate behavior due to the desire to approach or avoid the stimuli.

Incentive Motivation

The ___________ of motivation states that the likelihood that a behavior will occur depends on the individual’s value placed on the goal and his or her expectation of reaching the goal.

Expectancy-Value Theory

The ____________ states that the emotion being experienced depends on how the arousal has been interpreted or labeled.

Two-Factor Theory

_____________ proposed the Two-Factor Theory. For example, if your arousal is due your attraction to someone, the resulting emotion may be happiness or love; however, if the arousal is due to someone insulting you, the resulting emotion may be rage or anger.

Stanley Schacter

The theory of ____________ states that opposing cognitions (beliefs, emotions, behaviors) serve to compel the mind to modify existing thoughts or beliefs or obtain new beliefs in order to decrease the conflict between cognitions.

Cognitive Dissonance

___________ is an eating disorder in which a person frequently eats large amounts of food (binges) and then attempts to get rid of the food though exercise, laxatives, or vomiting (purging).

Bulimia Nervosa

____________ (1809-1882) believed that emotional expressions are, at first, learned behavior and then eventually become inborn in a species and assist in survival.

Charles Darwin

____________ is produced by the pituitary gland and is involved in regulating thirst.

Antidiuretic Hormone
__________ is the primary sex hormone in males.
Testosterone
Estrogen is the primary sex hormone in females.

The stage of physical development in which one becomes capable of sexual reproduction is known as _____________.

Puberty

An __________ is a neural impulse that drives a person to action.

Emotion

_____________ refers to the direction of an individual’s sexual interests.

Sexual Orientation

The ____________ proposes that organisms have basic needs that must be met for survival (eating, drinking, sleeping) and must maintain a state of homeostasis.

Drive Theory
In the drive theory, a disruption in homeostasis causes tension or arousal and results in a drive. For example, if the arousal was created by thirst, it is called a thirst drive and the arousal can be reduced by water and thus, help the body return to homeostasis balance.

______________ the state of balance between internal, physiological processes and conditions.

Homeostasis

According to the ___________ theory of emotional response, you must be aware of your physiological arousal in order to experience an emotion. In this theory, the stimulus is perceived and causes arousal resulting in a felt emotion.

James-Lange

The brain’s ____________ is associated with drives such as those for food and sex and emotions such as anger and fear.

Limbic System

A system in the brain known as the __________ is involved in arousal and wakefulness and thus assists the brain’s cortex in more effectively analyzing sensory data.

Reticular Activating System
(RAS)

As a general rule, performance at a task is best when arousal is:

Moderate

Darwin explained that organisms and species survive as a result of ________ , innate, unlearned behavior patterns that help the organism to survive.

Instincts
Pain receptors are primarily free nerve endings in the skin. Pain is transmitted to the __________.
Thalamus
____________ is the psychological process that directs and gives energy to behavior.
Motivation
Many of our basic motives function to serve biological processes; these include obtaining food and water and reproducing.

Ronald Melzack proposed the ___________ of pain that states that a “neurological gate” located in the spinal cord controls conduction of pain impulses to the brain.

Gate Control Theory

Determination of whether or not the gate is open depends on the connection between different types of nerve fibers.

_________ (1902-1987), a humanist, proposed that individuals work to become self-actualized, a process that leads to a person’s mature personality.

Carl Rogers

_________ (1908-1970) believed that individuals strive for self-actualization, fulfillment of one’s potential, but cannot achieve this until certain more basic needs are met.

Abraham Maslow

Maslow’s _________ are arranged in order from lowest to highest needs beginning with physiological needs (hunger, thirst, shelter) and ending with self-actualization.

Hierarchy of Needs

A _________ is a relatively enduring quality or characteristic in one’s personality.

Personality Trait

A _________ is a term used to identify a group of traits that form a broad, general personality classification.

Personality Type
___________ is an attempt to hide perceived deficiencies in one areas by excelling in another.
Compensation
____________involves active exclusion of unconscious impulses or thoughts from the consciousness.
Repression
_______________ is redirecting sexual or aggressive impulses into more socially acceptable direction.
Sublimation

___________ believed the personality can be in conflict within itself. In order to help people work toward achieving reconciliation with these conflicting views through self-actualization. He created client-centered therapy. This type of therapy is a process in which the therapists supports the client in spite of what he says and offers the client unconditional positive regard.

Carl Rogers

Carl Rogers described the personality's __________ as talents, feelings, etc. that we actually have.

True Self

Carl Rogers described the personality's __________ as one’s belief of what one is like.

Self-concept

Carl Rogers described the personality's __________ as what we would like to be.

Ideal Self

Using _________ techniques, a therapist can assess a subject’s personality by presenting ambiguous material and therefore requiring the subject to respond.
Projective
In these techniques subjects project their personality into their responses.

____________ (1856-1939) developed psychoanalysis, a treatment process based upon his theory of psychosexual stages of development.

Sigmund Freud

_____________ are emotionally charged images and thoughts that have universal meanings and may show up in a culture’s art and religion.

Archetypes

According to the _________ approach to personality, people are basically good and the world would be much better if people were allowed to express their true selves.

Humanistic
Attributing one’s feelings, shortcomings, or unacceptable impulses to other people is known as _____________.
Projection
Freud believed that the _________ of the personality included the unconscious and the basic biological urges. This personality includes the pleasure principle and seeks immediate gratification.
id
Freud believed that children go through a series of psychosexual stages during which the id seeks pleasure from body areas, known as erogenous zones, which change as children develop. Freud also believed that if a child had difficulty passing through any stage, the child becomes fixated in that stage.

____________ developed the well-known inkblot test to examine subjects' problems.

Hurman Rorschach
Subjects perceive the ambigious inkblots in various ways; Rorschach believed that those perceptions are related to the subjects' problems.

Henry Murray used the ___________ to identify a subject's problems, emotions, and motives.

Thematic Apperception Test

The Thematic Apperception Test was developed by ___________ and presents a series of ambiguous pictures to the subject and asks the subject to describe and tell a story about the picture.

Henry Murray

According to Freud the _____________ of development involves an obsession with the genitals and masturbation may occur during this stage. This stage lasts from age 3 to 6 years.

Phallic Psychosexual Stage

Freud believed fixation occurs when a child seeks to construct his or her life around meeting certain sexual needs. If a child becomes fixated in the phallic stage, the child may develop an ____________.

Oedipus Complex
Resolution of this conflict comes from the child identifying with the same gender parent.

Freud states that a boy who realizes he has a penis and that it feels good becomes jealous of his father (Oedipus Complex) in competing for his mother’s attention and feels ___________.

Castration Anxiety

Girls react differently in this Oedipus Complex stage; they realize they have no penis, wish they had one, known as ________, and desire their father.

Penis Envy
__________ is a defense mechanism in which one redirects anxiety producing behaviors to a more acceptable target.
Displacement

___________ are ways in which people convince themselves that an axiety-producing situation isn't really happening.

Defense Mechanisms
When phobias reappear, anxiety results, and defense mechanisms can be used to shelter oneself from the anxiety-producing situation. Defense mechanisms are ego strategies used to deal with anxiety produced by conflict with the id and superego.

_____________ are intense, irrational fears to objects or situations.

Phobias
Freud saw these intense, irrational fears to objects or situations as symbolic reminders of things the person wants but can't allow himself/herself to have.
_____________ is resorting to earlier stages of development in order to avoid anxiety or responsibility.
Regression

A ____________ utilizes the imagination to satisfy desires that, in reality, are highly unlikely.

Fantasy Defense Mechanism

The ____________ of Freud’s development involved fixation with bowel and bladder control. This stage lasts from ages 18 to 36 months.

Anal Psychosexual Stage
There are two types of anally fixated people. People who are anal retentive are very organized and like to delay pleasure until the last moment. People who are anal expulsive are rebellious and messy.
_____________ are personality assessment techniques in which subjects’ behaviors are observed through a standardized set of questions or through conversational exchange.
Interviews
This technique has low reliability.

___________ is the refusal to perceive reality and acting as if something didn’t happen.

Denial Defense Mechanism

_____________ is resorting to earlier stages of development in order to avoid anxiety or responsibility.

Regression Defense Mechanism

_____________ (1885-1952) theorized that many adult characteristics are formed in order to deal with basic anxiety, which is a feeling of being isolated in a potentially unfriendly world.

Karen Horney

Horney believed that outside of the family, females encounter harmful effects due to the higher value in society placed on being male, resulting in _________.

Women’s Low Self-esteem

Behavior patterns that are opposite to our anxiety producing urges are known as ______________.

Reaction Formation

The ________ are an attempt to reduce all of the ways of describing people to a few basic personality dimensions.

Big Five Personality Traits
Development of the Big Five personality traits came out of the individual-difference approach to personality which tries to identify and measure the wide variety of ways in which people differ and reduce those ways down into more manageable subsets; measurements of those characteristics can then be used to predict behavior.

The ___________ is curious, inquisitive, and independent.

Open Personality

The ___________ is reliable, and temperate.

Conscientious Personality

The ___________ is sociable and relational.

Extrovert Personality

The __________ is affable and compliant.

Agreeable Personality

The __________ is nervous and excitability.

Neurotic Personality

There is a repression of sexual feelings in Freud’s ____________. This stage lasts from age 6 years to puberty.

Latency Psychosexual Stage

Freud used a technique known as ____________, which requires a patient to relax and report everything that comes to mind.

Free association
Using this technique, patients were able to retrieve painful memories from early childhood. Freud believed that the mind is mostly hidden and that free association would allow a patient to retrieve memories from the unconscious.

Freud’s _____________ involved activities of the mouth such as chewing, sucking, and biting. This stage lasts from age 0 to 18 months.

Oral Psychosexual Stage
Many of a child's oral needs are met because parents place chilldren on a feeding schedule; however, pain comes when teeth come in. Thus, children experience a lot of tension related to meeting oral needs. Healthy ego development is associated with a moderate amount of tension. Too little tension results in underdevelopment of a child's ego. If a child experiences too much tension, he or she can develop a fixation in this stage (a desire to build his or her life around getting aneed met, in this case oral needs); he or she will grow up finding ways to meet oral needs in an age-appropriate way, socially-acceptable way, such as nail-biting,chewing gum, smoking, etc.

______________ emphasize the importance of the unconscious part of the mind.

Psychodynamic Theories
These theories originated from the work of Sigmund Freud and described people as having two basic needs or motives, sex and aggression.

____________ involves the study of the individual, who is recognized as an entity, with characteristics that set him apart from others.

Idiographic Research

____________ involves studying a cohort of individuals. In this type of research, the subject represents a class or population and their associated personality traits and behaviors.

Nomothetic Research

Idiographic and nonmothetic research were introduced by __________ (who borrowed them from Wilhelm Windelband).

G. Allport

The part of the personality that operates on conscious and unconscious levels and allows us to gratify urges within acceptable bounds is known as the ___________.

Ego
The ego functions according to the principle: Do what it takes to get your needs met in an efficient and effective way that avoids pain or punishment.

_______________ are unjustified fears that are resolved by the ego through the use of defense mechanisms, ego strategies used to deal with anxiety produced by conflict with the id and superego.

Anxieties

The __________ is used to diagnose psychological disorders including personality problems by measuring a number of personality dimensions.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
The MMPI is an assessment technique, a type of self-report; self-report questionnaires ask people to judge their agreement with statements describing behavior that might be indicative of a certain trait.

Psychologist ___________ believed that a good deal of our learning, behavior, and personality is formed through observing the behavior of others.

Albert Bandura

Bandura explained that learning occurs through ____________.

Behavioral Observation and Modeling

Bandura used the term _________ to describe one’s belief in his or her ability of successfully carrying out a specific behavior.

Self-efficacy

This concept is based on feelings of self-worth; people with high self-efficacy are more likely to engage in behaviors that lead to desired outcomes.
The _________ is the part of the personality that represent’s ones conscience and represents values, ideals, and morals. This personality begins to emerge as a child reaches 4 to 5 and begin to take in the morals of their parents and of society; this personality operates mainly in the pre-conscious awareness.
Superego
In general, psychoanaylsis has found that girls have weaker superegos than boys do.

The __________ represents the social part of a person's personality that allows him or her to get along with others. As children are rewarded and punished for right and wrong, a child learns appropriate behavior and can operate according to the morality principle which is basically, "Do what's right, avoid what's wrong."

Superego Personality
In general, psychoanaylsis has found that girls have weaker superegos than boys do.

_________ (1875-1961), a contemporary of Freud, developed a theory called analytical psychology.

Carl Jung

According to Carl Jung, the ___________ contains hidden memory traces from a person’s ancestors.

Collective Unconscious

_____________ are emotionally charged images and thoughts that have universal meanings and may show up in a culture’s art and religion.

Archetypes

The class of psychological disorders characterized by unusual feelings of vulnerability, dread, fear is known as ___________.

Anxiety Disorders
Symptoms of these disorders include apprehension, hyperactivity, and motor tension. Anxiety disorders may be caused by a deficiency of the neurotransmitter GABA, gamma-aminobutyric acid.

In ____________, people exhibit strange and/or excessive motor activity or remain in an unresponsive stupor.

Catatonic Schizophrenic

___________ are a category of psychological disorders characterized by a disturbance in mood. Examples include major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder.

Affective Disorders

People with ____________ have irrational, intense fears of certain objects or situations. Examples include fear of high places, social situations involving crowds, or fear of spiders.

Phobic Disorders

___________ is characterized by extreme delusions or hallucinations, inappropriate emotional responses, movements, or speech patterns. This type of disorder includes symptoms commonly thought to be associated with schizophrenia.

Disorganized Schizophrenia

____________ may exhibit symptoms that fall into one or more types of schizophrenia or no clear type of schizophrenia.

Undifferentiated Schizophrenia

___________ is characterized by alternations back and forth between states of depression and the overexcited state of mania. Mania is a state of heightened excitement characterized by risk-taking, inappropriate, wild, or destructive behavior.

Bipolar Disorder

___________ is when a person suddenly becomes unable to remember important personal information. This disorder often comes after a certain stressful event; the person’s memory may come back suddenly or slowly. An individual behaves as if one part of his personality is separated from other parts.

Dissociative Amnesia

A ___________ is consumed with a need to be admired and recognized, feels entitled to special treatment, and lacks empathy toward others. This personality disorder seeks undue admiration and praise.

Narcissistic Personality

____________ involve patterns or behavior or thinking that are highly inconsistent with social norms.

Personality Disorders
Persons with this disorders often are able to function in normal activities but are thought of as eccentric; however, they often respond to stress very rigidly and tend to have significant impairments in functioning.
____________ is when someone repeats or mimics the movements of another person. This behavior may be present in catatonic schizophrenia.
Echopraxia

Stress, the response to threats in one’s environment, mobilizes the body for preparedness to either attack or flee, a response known as _____________.

Fight or Flight

___________ identified the The fight or flight response affects to the autonomic nervous system’s role in the response process. The fight or flight response includes increased heart and breathing rates and increased tension in muscles.

Walter Cannon

A ___________ is characterized by unpredictable episodes of intense terror with sudden onset.

Panic Disorder
Persons with this disorders usually experience a chronic state of tension or feeling uptight and experience that can explode into unpredictable episodes of terror characterized by symptoms such as chest pains, racing heart, or dizziness.

Some psychologist believe that biological and physiological factors are the basis of all psychological disorders. They attempt to treat psychological disorders as a disease or mental illness from a __________.

Medical Perspective
Persons holding to the medical perspective seek to diagnose mental illness by examining symptoms and curing the conditions through treatments such as hospitalizations and drugs.

Some psychologist believe that psychological disorders are the result of unconscious and unresolved conflicts, often originating in early childhood, called the __________.

Psychodynamic Perspective
This perspective originated from Freud’s psychoanalytic theory; treatment focuses on working to realize and resolve the conflicts.
In stressful situations, sympathetic nervous system is stimulated and the adrenal glands release a hormone known as ___________.
Adrenaline

In addition to producing adrenaline (epinephrine), the adrenal glands also release __________.

Norepinephrine Neurotransmitter

The ___________ was identified by Hans Selye and involves three phases of the body’s reaction to stress including alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

General Adaptation Syndrome

In a __________ a person travels away from their home or work and becomes unable to remember all or some of his or her past and is confused about his or her identity and may assume a new identity.

Dissociative Fugue

_________ is when someone puts their limbs in a certain position and leaves them there for a long time. This behavior is a psychomotor symptom of catatonic schizophrenia.

Waxy Flexibility
_________ ________ _________ is characterized by a person experiencing at least two weeks of feeling worthless, hopeless, and discouraged, and have decreased interest in pleasurable activities for no obvious reason.
Major Depressive Disorder
In order to truly be diagnosed with having a thei disorder, an individual must also experience notable distress and impairment in work-related, social, and other basic areas of daily living. People who exhibit self-defeating reactions to events or accept complete blame for all of life’s events are more likely to experience depression.

A person with _____________ an unstable self-image and emotional behaviors and has trouble maintaining interpersonal relationships.

Borderline Personality Disorder

_____________ is the senseless repetition of words that someone else has just said. This behavior may be present in catatonic schizophrenics and is sometimes called “parrot talk.”

Echolalia Disorder

_____________ are those in which a person has one or more physical symptoms associated with a disease or disorder but has no underlying medical condition.

Somatoform Disorders

A ___________ is a type of somatoform disorder in which a person has a physical dysfunction such as blindness or paralysis that can’t be attributed to a medical problem but can be contributed to a psychological factor. For example, a person who is scared of speaking in public may become hoarse and thus avoid the speaking engagement.

Conversion Disorder

______________ is a psychological disorder in which a person has delusions and hallucinations (psychosis), withdrawal, and severe emotional problems.

Schizophrenia
Persons with slow-developing, chronic schizophrenia have a poorer chance of recovery than persons with acute (sudden onset) schizophrenia. Schizophrenics have difficulty distinguishing their fantasies and imagination from the real world. Autopsies of some schizophrenics have revealed an excess number of receptors for the neurotransmitter dopamine. Schizophrenia is believed to be caused by a combination of heredity, stress, dysfunctional dynamics, and actual biological abnormalities.

A _____________ in which people are extremely distrustful and suspicious of others.

Paranoid Personality Disorder
Paranoid persons often interpret even the benign actions of others’ as threatening.

Persons with __________ trust no one and believe that others are plotting against them.

Paranoid Schizophrenia
These individuals experience delusions of grandeur, persecution, or both. Delusions of persecution occur when a person with schizophrenia believes that others will harm them.

Persons with ______________ seem to lack a conscience and social emotions, and are often impulsive.

Antisocial Personality Disorder
Antisocial persons often violate or disregard the rights of others.

Followers of the __________ believe mental disorders are caused by the behavior itself and thee behavior is the problem and that disorders are learned behaviors.

Behavioral Psychology
In this approach, disorders are faulty learned behaviors that have been classically conditioned or reinforced.

According to the __________ approach, abnormal behavior is viewed in terms of abnormal thought patterns. Treatment focuses on replacing abnormal maladaptive thought patterns with normal, useful thought patterns.

Cognitive Psychology

A person with schizophrenia may exhibit ___________ in which they believe that they are someone famous or important.

Delusions of Grandeur
A person has this problem when they believe that they are someone famous such as Abraham Lincoln or the Pope.

Individuals with ___________ are as hard-working, competitive, and often angry and may have higher incidences of heart disease.

Type A Personalities

People with __________ are easy going and may have lower incidences of heart disease.

Type B Personalities

A ___________ is one in which a person relives a traumatic event, experiences increased arousal, avoids reminders of the original traumatic event, and has decreased interest in daily life.

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
Many war veterans experience PTSD and may have vivid memories (flashbacks) and nightmares of traumatic events in battle.

___________ are chemicals with properties similar to those of morphine that can be released in stressful situations.

Endorphins
Someone with ______________ blieves that he or she has a serious illness or medical condition although there is no medical evidence to support the belief. For example, a person withn this disorder may interpret occasional heartburn as a symptom of a major heart condition or heart attack even though no medical tests support this diagnosis.
Hypochondriasis

_________ is a condition in which a person feels persistent and excessive anxiety and dread for the majority of days in a period of at least six months.

General Anxiety Disorder
Freud called the type of anxiety experienced in this disorder “free-floating” anxiety meaning that the anxiety is not set off by any certain occurrence but is general and persistent. People with this disorder may experience sweaty palms, shaking, and have nervous habits.

___________ focus their research on stress. This focus includes how to identify and deal with stress and problems caused by stress.

Behavioral Medicine and Health Psychology

Research has shown that social support from friends and family is useful in dealing with stress. Although friends and family can be help you deal with stress, they can also add to your stress through exaggerating the stress, adding to the stress such as through the burden of caring for loved ones, or through displacing their personal stress on client.

________ examines psychological and social factors that are important in preventing and treating illnesses.

Health Psychologists

_____________ are repetitive disturbing thoughts that trigger repetitive behaviors.

Obsessions
This disorder often entail a preoccupation with impending doom, neatness, or germs. Compulsions are repetitive behaviors or mental activity that one feels compelled to do, even though it may be against one’s will. Examples of compulsions include checking locks on doors or windows or hand-washing.

__________ involves repetitive thoughts that compel one to perform repetitive behaviors or mental activities.

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

A __________ is a condition in which a person assumes two or more distinct identities.

Dissociative Identity Disorder
The identities manifest themselves at different times and one personality may be unable to remember of the other personality. Persons with this disorder often have a history of childhood trauma such as sexual abuse.

A student driving to college notices that as he is looking at parallel lines in the middle of a highway, their distance is perceived as greater when the lines appear closer together; this phenomenon is known as ________ .

Linear Perspective

The ________ is known as the pinna. The function of it is to collect sound waves.

Outer Ear

Linear perspective is a __________ that refers to the fact that, as parallel lines move into the distance, they appear to get closer together or converge.

Monocular Depth Cue
This concept is related to both relative size and texture gradient.

Nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement are known as ____________ .

Feature Detectors
This ability may respond to a circular shape but not to a rectangular shape. Information is passed onto other cells that only respond to more complex patterns, such as an arm moving in a specific direction.
__________ 's _____ attempts to describe the relationship between physical magnitudes of the stimuli and the perceived intensity of the stimuli.
Weber's Law
According to this law, the difference threshold increases in proportion to the intensity of the stimuli. It is easier to notice the difference between weaker stimuli than intense, powerful stimuli.

_________ are depth cues that indicate as a surface, field, or object gets farther away from us its texture gets finer and appears smoother while objects that are close tend to appear distinct or coarse.

Texture Gradients
If you look at a stone road, you perceive the texture of the stones that are closer to you as coarse and more distinct while stones that are far away tend to blend together into an indistinct, fine texture.
Light enters the eye through the _______ and then the lens of the eye focuses light on the retina, the back of the eyeball.
Cornea
_________ is the property of a sound wave measured by its perceived frequency. The number of sound waves per second determines frequency.
Pitch

The minimum intensity necessary for a given person to detect a given stimuli is called an _____________.

Absolute Threshold
Generally, the absolute threshold is considered to be the intensity needed for a stimulus to be noticed 50% of the time that it is presented.

_________, a depth cue that results from motion, states that objects that are closer to us move farther across our field of view than do objects that are in the distance. This cue is also known as relative motion.

Motion Parallax

____________ enables us to estimate distances between ourselves and the objects we see.

Depth Perception
Although images on our retinas are two-dimensional (sensation) depth perception allows us to see three dimensions (perception). As the eyes move laterally, two slightly different views of the same object are created thus allowing depth perception.

The degree to which the eyes have to turn inward or medially (toward the nose) to view an object is __________. This is one of the binocular cues to distance or depth perception.

Convergence
The greater the ________ of a sound wave, the greater loudness is perceived.
Amplitude

Creating an image of the outside world in your mind is known as __________.

Mental Perception

In _________, a cue to distance in visual perception, each eye receives slightly different information from the environment due to the spacing between our eyes. The brain must combine the two “messages” received by each retina into coherent perceptions and thus, allows the visual system to determine the distance of objects within the field of vision.

Retinal Disparity
__________ is the term used to describe our ability to realize depth, the ability to differentiate the relative distance of objects with an obvious physical displacement between the objects.
Stereopsis

Because of ___________, we tend to pay attention to stimuli that have meaning to us and ignore stimuli that don’t. In this process, nerve cells involved in detecting an unchanging stimulus begin to fire less frequently and thus, a person’s sensitivity to the stimulus decreases.

Sensory Adaptation

The _______ receives sound waves after they strike the eardrum and contains three tiny bones that intensify the force of the vibrations.

Middle Ear

The sense of body rotation originates in the three ___________ in the inner ear. Movement of the fluid encloses in these canals stimulates hair cells which in turn, relay messages to the brain about the speed and direction of body rotation.

Semicircular Canals

Olfaction is the sense of smell, ___________ are stimulated by volatile chemical substances in the air.

Olfactory Receptors

Taste is a combination of four basic sensations, sweet, sour, salty, and bitter which are combined in various ways to make all other taste sensations. Each taste is associated with different receptors or taste buds. __________ are bumps on the tongue that each contain several taste buds from which information is sent to the brain.

Papillae

The __________, states that the existence of three types of cones allows different sensitivities to lights of different wavelengths that produce primary hues red, green, and blue.

Young-Helmholtz Theory
This theory was proposed in the 19th century by Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz.
_________ is the sense of the relative position of neighboring parts of the body.
Kinesthesis
Movement is monitored by mechanoreceptors in the body’s muscles, joints, and tendons resulting in this process.

The sensations of gravitation and movement originate from movement of two _________ within each ear. Motion sickness originates from excessive stimulation of these organs.

Vestibular Sacs

The smallest difference between two similar stimuli a human being can detect is called the ______________. Also known as the just noticeable difference.

Difference Threshold

___________, the stimulus for hearing, is made up of a series of pressures that have three characteristics: amplitude, frequency, and purity.

Sound Waves

Within the ___________, there are receptors for hearing, hair cells, located within the cochlea responsible for converting vibrations into nerve impulses that travel to the brain via the auditory nerve.

Inner Ear

If appropriate sensory stimulation is not present early on in our development, various perceptual skills fail to develop on a neural level, resulting in _____________ .

Sensory Restriction
For example, if a kitten is prevented from seeing for several months after birth, it may later be unable to differentiate between shapes, such as a circle and a square. The same experiment conducted on adults would not lead to sensory restriction, indicating that there is a period of time in which perceptual skills must develop.
The characteristics of a sound allowing the ear to distinguish sounds with the same pitch and loudness are known as ________ .
Timbre

Individuals may process in a __________ fashion, meaning the information is processed from simple sensory receptors to more complex neural networks.

Bottom Up
For example, if your attention is drawn to person dressed in all black in a crowd of individuals dressed in all white, it may be simply that the person is visually more prominent than the surrounding crowd. Your attention was not dependent upon knowledge of the person dressed in black; the outside stimulus was sufficient on its own to cause sensory perception.
The skin contains receptors for touch/pressure, temperature, and __________.
Pain

__________ in the eyes responsible for night vision and peripheral vision. These receptors are located in greater density at the edge of each retina.

Photoreceptors Rods

When an object partially blocks another object, we perceive the first object as closer; this phenomenon is known as _________.

Interposition

Sensations of body rotation and of gravitation and movement are known as ________. These senses arise in the inner ear.

Vestibular Senses
_________ is the organization and interpretation of sensations and allows us to create meaning out of sensations.
Perception

________ in depth perception require only one eye, allowing the relative location of objects to be calculated.

Monocular Cues

______ are tendencies to perceive a certain thing and not another; an example is perceiving the sound of water hitting the sink as the doorbell ringing if you are expecting company while you’re washing dishes.

Perceptual Sets

As stated in the _________, a person’s ability to detect a stimuli will vary due to psychological influences such as past experiences and expectations.

Signal Detection Theory

Ewald Hering stated a human’s visual system understands information about color by processing signals from cones in an antagonistic manner in his _____________.

Opponent Processing Theory

____________ explains visual images that are the complementary color of the image of the stimulus; for example, if you stare at a blue dot and then look at a white paper, you will see the afterimage of a yellow dot because yellow is the complimentary color of blue.

Ewald Hering

____________ in the center of the retina that are responsible for color vision. These receptors operate best in intense light.

Photoreceptors Cones

Processing information from the environment may also occur in a ___________ manner, meaning that the information is processed from motives, contextual cues, and expectations to unprocessed sensory data. For example, if are looking for an individual who is dressed in black and when you see that person, he or she becomes significant.

Top down

___________ require both eyes be used together.

Binocular Depth Perception Cues

The __________ is the time during which exposure to various stimuli is necessary in order for various perceptual skills to develop.

Critical Period

The environment around us has way too much information than we can retain in our awareness, thus ____________ is necessary for us to focus on one aspect of our environment while ignoring another.

Selective Attention
This concept demonstrates that our perceptions of reality are chosen, organized and interpreted not just detected.
The sense of taste is known as__________ .
Gustation

The __________ basically presents the ways in which people explain the behavior of others. This theory addresses how people “attribute” causes to events and how this perception influences their motivation.

Attribution Theory

_____________ explains the causes for a person’s behavior in terms of outside factors such as weather or influence from others.

Situational Attribution
___________ is a hormone that is associated with aggression.
Testosterone
This hormone is present at much higher levels in males than in females and appears to decrease the threshold for aggression. Scientists have studied the effects of certain chemicals (such as drugs and alcohol) and certain hormones (such as testosterone) influence aggression. The weapons effect shows that the presence of aggressive cues (guns, knives, aggressive behaviors by others) results in higher levels of aggression among people who have already been provoked.

The ____________ is a concept that basically states people feel duty-bound or required to help those who need our assistance. Similarly, the reciprocity norm implies that we feel as though we’re required to help those who have helped us.

Social Responsibility Theory
________________ is behavior that is focused on harming another individual.
Aggression

This behavior is the most destructive force in social relations and is a huge social issue. The __________ basically states that aggression is always the results of frustration. This hypothesis cannot be applied to all situations; however, it is useful in showing that a frustrating event can lead to aggressive behavior.

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

_________, well known for his studies of aggression, believed that aggression came from instincts, innate behaviors that help organisms to best utilize resources. Research has also found that aggression may have genetic and neural bases.

Konrad Lorenz

___________ is a phenomenon in which a person’s performance is decreased when he or she is working in a group. This phenomenonis more likely to occur if the task at hand is complex or unfamiliar. The influence is about the pressures from others to change another person’s behavior or attitudes.

Social Interference

____________ is a phenomenon in which a person’s performance improved in the presence of others. This phenomenon is more likely to occur if the task is simple and familiar.

Social Facilitation

Persuasion, is (__ more or ___ less) likely to occur if the individual likes and trusts the source of the persuasion.

More
Persuasion, the process of trying to deliberately influence a change in attitude. The way in which the message is presented and the characteristics of the receiver also influence the ease of which attitude change occurs.

The ____________ involves getting someone to agree to a small request before asking a larger request.

Foot In The Door Technique
In contrast, the door-in-the face technique involves making a request so large that is will be rejected before making a smaller request (one that is more likely to be granted). Lowballing is getting someone to agree to do something then raising the cost or effort required to fulfill the commitment.

_____________ proposed that love has three components: passion, intimacy, and commitment. According to this model, the three components of love can be combined to produce different dimensions of a relationship.

Robert Sternberg

____________ involves intimacy, passion, and commitment. This type of love is most difficult to achieve.

Consummate Love

___________ involves intimacy and passion but no commitment.

Romantic Love

___________ is behavior that is focused on helping others through unselfish actions.

Altruism
________ ________ occurs by watching the behavior of others and can influence the learning of aggressive behaviors. For instance, some research shows that male abusers grew up in homes where they witnessed abuse or violence.
Social Learning

__________ conducted a famous experiment in which subjects were asked to judge the lengths of a group of lines. Most of the subjects (who were confederates of the experimenter) gave obviously wrong answers; in order to conform to the group, the real subjects also gave wrong answers on many occasions.

Solomon Asch

People often conform to a group in order to avoid rejection. Conformity is the process of altering your behavior because of real or imagined group pressure. This behavior is an example of the _____________.

Normative Social Influence

______________ performed a famous experiment on obedience to authority in which he, the authority figure, convinced subjects to deliver progressively stronger “shocks” to another person when that person gave wrong answers to questions asked by the subject (no shocks were actually delivered). In this study, although many of the subjects protested at administering increasingly stronger shocks, most administered the shock after the authority figure insisted they do so.

Stanley Milgram

People tend to attribute good things that happen to people they don’t like to situational factors (such as luck) and bad things that happen to the person to dispositional factors (such as the person’s immaturity); this attribution is known as __________.

Self Serving Bias

The tendency of observers to attribute others’ behavior to dispositions (internal attributes) and their own behavior to situations (external attributes) is known as the ______________.

Actor-Observer Difference.

____________ is a phenomenon among group members in which people conform to what they perceive as the consensus of the group and therefore allow the group to make bad or irrational decisions.

Groupthink

A phenomenon among group members is ___________, which can occur when a group assumes a more extreme position than the position or attitude held by any individual group member.

Group Polarization

The ________ theory recognizes that if you act in a way that is inconsistent with one of your attitudes, then the inconsistency leads to a state of tension.

Cognitive Dissonance
The state of tension is known as ______________. Because you can’t undo your behavior, you work eliminate the dissonance by explaining the reasons for your behavior (using situational or dispositional attributions) or by changing your attitude toward the behavior.
Dissonance

The __________ states that as an individual goes through life, he or she works to maximize rewards and minimize costs or efforts. According to this theory, a person may be more likely to help someone else he believes that he will receive more than it will cost him.

Social Exchange Theory

_____________ is a phenomenon in which an increasing number of witnesses to an emergency decreases the likelihood that a person will intervene and help in the situation. As the number of witnesses to the emergency increases, diffusion in responsibility occurs and no one feels it is his or her place to intervene. A person is more likely to receive help when they are alone than when they are in a group.

Bystander Effect

The _____________ is a type of attitude scale in which people are asked how much they like or dislike a statement or topic.

Likert Scale

Attitudes are positive, negative, or neutral views of a person, event, or behavior that arise from personal judgments.The cognitive component of an attitude consists of how an individual thinks about the object of the attitude. In addition, the behavioral component of an attitude involves a tendency to act a certain way toward the object of an attitude. The affective component of an attitude refers to emotions that are sparked by the object of an attitude.

_________ involves intimacy and commitment.

Companionate Love

________is the result of passion and commitment.

Fatuous Love

___________ are fixed, but generally wrong, perceptions that all members of a certain group share common traits.

Stereotypes

___________ are unjustified negative attitudes about people in a group. When prejudices manifest as behavior, discrimination occurs.

Prejudices
____________ explains the causes for a person’s behavior or actions in terms of factors within the person such as intelligence or personality.
Attribution

Attributions can affect our own behavior; for example, if a friend compliments your new shoes, you may attribute this compliment to her ability to appreciate your high fashion (____________) and then act kindly toward the person.

Dispositional Attribution

If a compliment is precieved as an attempt from to pressure you into lending money (__________), then you may simply walk away.

Situational Attribution

The tendency of people to overuse internal/dispositional attributions is called the _____________. For example, people would tend to blame an adolescent’s auto accident on his lack of driving experience than on the icy road conditions.

Fundamental Attribution Error

____________ is the awareness of events and internal and external stimuli.

Consciousness

_________ is characterized by bursts of brain activity called sleep spindles; in this stage muscle tension is decreased.

Sleep Stage Two

The unconscious portion of a person’s dreams, which is usually a forbidden sexual or aggressive wish, is known as the ______________ of a dream.

Latent Content

A process called ______________ can be used in psychoanalytic treatment to help a people determine the latent content of their dreams and thus, help people better understand their emotional problems.

Free Association

____________ work by producing a state of consciousness that is different from normal consciousness by stimulating, imitating, or hindering that activity of neurotransmitters.

Psychoactive Drugs

_________ that alter perceptions and create sensations with no physical basis are known as hallucinogens. Examples of these drugs are LSD, PCP and psychedelic mushrooms.

Psychedelic Drugs

The _______________ of dreams are the images that appear to the dreamer and can be consciously remembered.

Manifest Content

During sleep a person moves through sleep stages one to four then the cycles reverses back through stages three and two. Then rather than reverting to stage one, the person goes into a different stage called _________ where the eyes begin to dart back and forth.This cycle repeats several times during a night’s sleep.

REM sleep

REM (rapid eye movement) sleep is sometimes known as _____________ because the sleeper appears to be calm and relaxed in spite of a great deal of brain activity that is occurring.

Paradoxical Sleep

The ___________ to explain dreams states that brain neurons randomly fire during sleep and as a person awakens, he or she constructs a dream in order to make sense of the randomly generated images created by the brain during sleep.

Activation-Synthesis Theory

One view of hypnosis states that people who are hypnotized are filling _________ by acting in the way the hypnotist wants them to act.

Social Roles

Individuals under the effects of hypnosis have a heightened state of _____________, meaning that the hypnotized person wanted to be hypnotized and wants to do what the hypnotist wants him or her to do.

Suggestibility

During ___________, temperature decreases, pulse and breathing rates slow, and some delta waves occur.

Sleep Stage Three

___________ is a psychological condition in which some people may be induced to show various differences in behavior and thinking. This state or condition is characterized by heightened suggestibility and deep relaxation.

Hypnosis

____________ is a relaxed wakefulness involving eye movement and muscular tension. A person may experience feelings of falling or floating during stage one sleep.

Sleep Stage One
__________ is a process related to meditation in which an individual uses body processes such a breathing or heart rate to convey information to him or herself in real-time in order to increase awareness and conscious control of related physiological activities. Often, this procedure is used to increase relaxation.
Biofeedback

Each of the sleep stages can be distinguished in part by cycles of brain waves, electrical currents in the brain that are shown graphically on an ______________. This record of brain patterns is known as an EEG.

Electroencephalogram

___________ is a procedure for changing consciousness in which a person narrows his or her attention span in order to produce feelings of relaxation.

Meditation

_____________ are categorized as chemicals that work to slow down body functions and neurological activity and thus, have a relaxing and calming effect. Examples of these drugs are alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates.

Deppressant Psychoactive Drugs

__________ increase the activity of the sympathetic nervous system and create a feeling of euphoria. These drugs work by increasing body functions and neurological activity. Examples are caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines, and ecstasy.

Stimulant Psychoactive Drugs

Rapid eye movement and dreaming occur only in REM state, the other sleep stages are called _________ sleep.

Non-Rapid Eye Movement.

___________ occurs when larger and larger doses of a drug are required in order to produce that same state of relaxation and euphoria.

Drug Tolerance
Some people claim that hypnosis involves __________, a split in consciousness that allows the person to become aware of his or her activities while under hypnosis.
Dissociation

___________ explanation of dreams state that dreams are a way of consolidating information and so as we sleep, our brains create dreams to sort out the day’s activity and lock them into our memories.

Dream Information-Processing

A person who is hypnotized will do things he or she would not normally do if he or she were not under hypnosis. _____ False or ______True

False

____________ is the deepest sleep stage and consists of almost all delta waves. A person is difficult to awaken during this stage.

Sleep Stage Four

A __________ a measure used to describe the relationship between two variables and the magnitude of that relationship.

Correlation Coefficients
Higher numbers (correlation coefficients) indicate stronger relationships between variables (in spite of the direction of the relationship). A correlation coefficient of .00 indicates that the relationship between two variables occurred merely by chance.
______________ is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.
Validity

____________ is how well test scores are able to predict the actual type of behavior the test is supposed to measure.

Predictive Validity

_________ (also known as conduct validity) is whether the tests appears as if it measures what it's supposed to.

Face validity

__________ is whether scores on a test (such as a questionnaire) are related in expected ways (such as positively or negatively) to scores on other tests or questionnaires.

Construct Validity

_______________ is the consistency of results in a test, meaning the test obtains the same results over time.

Reliability
When there are differences in test scores, the researcher must see if there are actual differences in the characteristic being measured or if the differences are due to errors in the testing. Test-retest reliability is the consistency of scores across many test administrations. For example, if an individual takes a test five times, does he or she get the same score each time the test is taken? If a person has taken a test twice, a researcher can develop a correlation coefficient between the two scores to see whether or not the scores from each test are highly correlated.

The ___________ is the score or point at which half of the scores fall below and half of the scores fall above. Basically, it is the middle number when numbers are arranged in ascending to descending order.

Median Score

____________, have been taken by large numbers of people with a certain identified characteristic (gender, race, etc.) in order to know how well others performed relative to persons who have already taken the test.

Standardized Tests
_____________ is the process of choosing a representative subset from a larger population (such as all Canadians, all elementary school students, etc.).
Sampling
Researchers work to make statistical inferences from large groups known as ____________.
The Populations

Using certain characteristics of the sample, ___________ are used to make inferences about some unknown aspect of populations.

Inferential Statistics

___________ uses various techniques (such as mean, median, mode, and standard deviation) to summarize a set of data. This process can be used to collect, classify, summarize, and present data in order to make the data meaningful and thus, accurately describe the sample.

Descriptive Statistics

____________ is the arithmetic average of all the numbers or scores being considered. To obtain the average, add up all of the scores, and divide that number by the total number of scores that have been added. The standard deviation is an index of how widely scattered scores tend to fall around average.

The Mean

__________ is the number or score that occurs most often.

The Mode

____________ are aimed at telling how well a person might learn a certain skill.

Aptitude Tests

____________ are used to form impressions of others and have a high reliability.

Behavioral Observations

Inferential statistics may use data gathered through Descriptive Statistics (i.e. mean, mode, median, etc.) in order to draw a conclusion. In order to make inferences about populations based on characteristics of the sample, researchers use ___________.

Statistical Significance
If a relationship (in a correlational study) or a difference between two means (in an experiment) is statistically significant, it means that the relationship or difference did not likely occur by chance if there was not a relationship or difference in the population the samples originated from.

_____________ was a technique introduced by Carl Rogers that involved paraphrasing a client’s statements and reflecting on the client’s feelings through statements such as: “It seems as if that event made you sad.”

Active listening

_______________ is a technique used in psychoanalysis in which clients relax and try to report anything that comes to mind in order to access the unconscious. This technique can assist the client in gaining insight into repressed memories and use those memories to understand current behavior.

Free association

_____________ is the placement of individuals with mental illnesses into facilities for the purpose of treatment.

Institutionalization
Deinstitutionalization has occurred in the more recent years due to better drug treatments, overcrowded institutions, and the development of community and home-based therapies.
Systematic ____________ is the process of helping people to learn relaxation techniques in order to deal with anxiety-producing situations; anxiety is slowly replaced with relaxation.
Desensitization

___________ developed Desensitization technique, one that is especially useful in dealing with phobias.

Joseph Wolpe

___________ is a procedure in which an anesthetized patient is given an electric shock through electrodes placed on the brain in order to produce a brief seizure.

Electroconvulsive Therapy
ECT was developed in the 1930s and is quite controversial. This treatment may be used in the treatment of major depression.
______________ is a surgical procedure in which nerve pathways between the cerebral cortex and lower brain are severed in order to control a patient’s violent behavior. This procedure is very controversial and rarely used today.
Lobotomy
____________ is the process of using psychological techniques in order to treat behavioral and emotional problems.
Psychotherapy

The _______ concentrates on bodily treatments and usually involves medications.

Biomedical Therapy
_______________ occurs when a client expresses feelings to toward the therapist that are linked to earlier relationships, such as with a parent or sibling.
Transference
An example would be a client leaking hate toward the therapist when the actual hate is for a parent or sibling. Resistance occurs when a client is unwilling to provide information in order to avoid thoughts that cause anxiety.

___________ are used to treat the symptoms of Schizophrenia and decrease occurrence of psychotic symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions.

Anti-Psychotic Drugs
Examples include Haldol (haloperidol) and Thorazine (chlorpromazine). Some of these drugs can produce a severe and lasting problem known as tardive dyskinesia in which people experience involuntary writing and tick-like movements of the mouth, hands, or feet.

Therapists may use a ______________ , a situation in which a therapist gives a token to a client whenever the desirable behavior is performed; then, the client can “cash” the tokens in for actual rewards.

Token Economy

____________ is when someone focuses only on something negative that happened and therefore becomes depressed.

Overgeneralization
In this cognitive distortion, we come to a general conclusion based on a single incident or a single piece of evidence. If something bad happens only once, we expect it to happen over and over again. A person may see a single, unpleasant event as part of a never-ending pattern of defeat. All-or-none thinking is a tendency to view events or situations as all good or all bad. This way of thinking is often present in depression. Cognitive therapy is based on the idea that people exhibit abnormal behavior because of the way they think. This approach does not assume that conflict or anxiety is the root of the problem. Cognitive therapy is frequently used to treat depression and emotional problems.

_____________ is a technique in which undesirable behavior is grouped with undesirable and repulsive stimuli in order to stop the behavior.

Aversive Conditioning
An example is painting fingernails with a bitter substance (non-toxic, of course) in order to stop a child’s nail biting habit; the child begins to associate nail biting with an unpleasant taste and therefore stops biting his nails.
_____________ is a type of therapy in which the therapist works to help the client recognize conflict by bringing the conflict to the conscious mind and dealing with the conflict in a socially acceptable beneficial manner.
Psychoanalysis

__________ - drugs result in a mood elevation.

Anti-Depressant
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) such as Zoloft (sertaline) and Prozac (fluoxetine), tricyclics such as Elavil (amitriptyline), and monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors such as Nardil (phenelzine) are all examples of antidepressants.

The focus of community psychology is _______________, helping people to use skills they already have and obtain new knowledge. This therapy helps people to gain control over their lives.

Empowerment

___________ to provide services and involves promoting social change through such things as prevention programs, research, and early intervention.

Community Psychology Works

____________ are examples of places within the community that deal with various aspects of community mental health. They provide shelter for individuals recently released from jails or mental institutions or those who are at risk for needing mental health care.

Halfway Houses and Crisis Intervention Centers
In these houses, residents work in the community but have some supervision and assistance in daily life. Crisis intervention centers assist people in dealing with acute, stressful situations that result from a crisis such as rape or suicide attempt.

___________ seek to modify behavior using learning principles or techniques such as classical and operant conditioning.

Behavioral Therapies
Remember that classical conditioning involves placing a neutral stimulus with another (unconditioned) stimulus that causes an automatic (unconditioned) response; as a result, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus.

In _________ therapist uses techniques such as role playing and confrontation and questioning to help clients become aware of their feelings and learn to cope with daily problems.

Gestalt Therapy

In ____________, the therapist displays unconditional positive regard for the client’s statements and provides an empathetic and caring environment.

Client Centered Therapy

____________, a humanist, preferred client Centered approach. Humanistic therapies focus on conscious thoughts and current events and work toward gaining insight into the roots of problems.

Carl Rogers

__________ is a technique in which a clients, accompanied by their therapist, is suddenly exposed to an anxiety-producing situation in order to get rid of the person’s fear.

Flooding

_______________ help to reduce arousal by depressing the central nervous system. Examples include benzodiazepines such as Valium (diazepam) and Xanax (alprazolam).

Anti-Anxiety Drugs