科技哲学 Philosophy Of Science And Tech

Front 1

"Logicism"
逻辑主义

Try to extract historical context from science and provide a logical structure for science

Back 1

逻辑原子论: 罗素, 维特根斯坦
逻辑实证主义: 摩里兹·石里克, 卡尔纳普
逻辑经验论: Reichenbach, 亨普尔
批判理性主义: 波普尔, 拉卡托斯

Hint 1

Logical Atomism: Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein
Logical Positivism: Moritz Schlick, Rudolf Carnap
Logical Empiricism: Hans Reichenbach, C.G. Hempel
Critical Rationalism: Karl Popper, Imre Lakatos

知网： 数理逻辑和数学基础研究中的一种学说。这里的逻辑主要指 的是现代逻辑，即数理逻辑。逻辑 主义哲学产生于19世纪末，其创始 人是弗雷格。在弗雷格思想的影响下，20世纪初 产生了逻辑主义运动史上的第一个流派，即逻辑原子主义，其创始人 及代表人物是罗素和早期维特根斯坦。

Front 2

逻辑原子论

Back 2

[luó jí yuán zǐ lùn]
Logical atomism


(Hist. develop)
(Russell, Wittgenstein)
1 Established modern logic.
2 Logical analysis of ordinary languages.

Hint 2

Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) described his philosophy as a kind of “logical atomism”, by which he meant to endorse both a metaphysical view and a certain methodology for doing philosophy. The metaphysical view amounts to the claim that the world consists of a plurality of independently existing things exhibiting qualities and standing in relations. According to logical atomism, all truths are ultimately dependent upon a layer of atomic facts, which consist either of a simple particular exhibiting a quality, or multiple simple particulars standing in a relation.
1 Established modern logic.
2 Logical analysis of ordinary languages.

是现代逻辑和经验主义相结合的一种哲学学说。逻辑原子主义主张哲学的本质是逻辑，哲学的主要任务是逻辑分析，即对科学陈述进行逻辑分析; 而所谓逻辑分析，就是利用现代逻 辑的成果，弄清现有的命题的逻辑 结构，使命题的意义更清楚、更明 确，以此解决某些哲学混乱。它还 主张建立一种逻辑化的人工语言， 这种语言的形式与经验世界的结构 是一致的。
它认为分析是了解任何主题实质的途径，对任一事物不断分析,直至无可分析为止,那时所剩下的就是逻辑原子。

Front 3

逻辑实证主义

Back 3

[luó jí shí zhèng zhǔ yì]
Logical Positivism


(Hist. develop)
1 Philosophy should be scientific: The meaning of a proposition is its method of verification.
2 Unity of Science Movement or physicalism

Hint 3

The term ‘logical empiricism’ has no very precise boundaries and still less that distinguishes it from ‘logical positivism’. It is therefore hard to map. ‘Logical empiricism’ is used here to include the following three groups: (1) the Vienna Circle, here taken broadly to include those who were part of various private discussion groups, especially that around Moritz Schlick, and also the members of the more public Ernst Mach Society (Verein Ernst Mach), (2) the smaller, but perhaps more influential Berlin Society for Empirical Philosophy (later called the Berlin Society for Scientific Philosophy), and (3) those who were influenced by or interacted with members of the first two groups and shared a broadly intellectual kinship with them.

亦称“逻辑经验主义”。核心是维也纳学派。反对形而上学。 逻辑实证主义否认存在实体、上帝、自由和必然等所谓"永远不能解决的问题"，认为不是存在这类问题而不能解决，而是实际上根本没有这样的问题，或者只有一些所谓"似是而非的问题"。

Front 4

实证主义

Back 4

[shí zhèng zhǔ yì]
positivism


All concepts should be reduced to positive sensations (or observations). Refute metaphysics

Hint 4

logical positivism,also called positivism, a philosophical movement inspired by empiricism and
verificationism; it began in the 1920s and flourished for about twenty or thirty years. While
there are still philosophers who would identify
themselves with some of the logical positivists’
theses, many of the central docrines of the theory have come under considerable attack in the
last half of this century. In some ways logical pos
All concepts should be reduced to positive sensations (or observations). Refute metaphysics.
是强调感觉经验、排斥形而上学传统的西方哲学派别。又称实证哲学。

Front 5

批判理性主义

Back 5

[pī pàn lǐ xìng zhǔ yì]

critical-rationalism

(Hist. develop)
(Popper, Lakatos)

Hint 5

Critical rationalists hold that scientific theories and any other claims to knowledge can and should be rationally criticized, and (if they have empirical content) can and should be subjected to tests which may falsify them.

知网： “批判理性主义”一词系由“理性主义”一词衍生而来，它的涵义是反对传统的经验主义，要对哲学史上的理性主义进行批判。波普规定批判理性主义是关于科学方法论的学说。科学方法论与科学发现的逻辑是一致的，其目的在于建立一些方法论的规则或规范，使科学家可以依据这些规则或规范进行研究和作出发现。它认为凡具有可证伪性的理论都是科学的。

Front 6

历史主义

Back 6

Historicism


(Hist. develop)
(Kuhn)

Hint 6

Cambridge: the doctrine that knowledge of human affairs has an irreducibly historical character and that there can be no ahistorical perspective for an understanding of human
nature and society. What is needed instead is a
philosophical explication of historical knowledge
that will yield the rationale for all sound knowledge of human activities.

Oxford: Historicism in the philosophy of science is a fairly recent development. It can perhaps be dated to the publication of Kuhn's influential The Structure of Scientific Revolutions in 1962. Before that point, the two dominant theories of rationality were confirmationism (scientists should accept theories that are probably true, given the evidence) and falsificationism (scientists should reject theories that make false predictions about observables and replace them with theories that conform to all available evidence).

Front 7

女权主义

Back 7

[nǚ quán zhǔ yì]
Feminism

Hint 7

Women’s “way of knowing” are different from those privileged in science and hence science should be changed to accommodate women’s cognitive styles.

又译“女性主义”。女权主义一词源起于西方社会的妇女解放运动，它有着双重的含义，首先它代表为妇女争取平等权利的主张，进一步而言，它是一种社会变革的思想体系，这种变革旨在为妇女创造超越单纯平等的新世界。

Front 8

后现代主义

Back 8

Postmodernism

Hint 8

The term “postmodernism” first entered the philosophical lexicon in 1979, with the publication of The Postmodern Condition by Jean-François Lyotard. It can be described as a set of critical, strategic and rhetorical practices employing concepts such as difference, repetition, the trace, the simulacrum, and hyperreality to destabilize other concepts such as presence, identity, historical progress, epistemic certainty, and the univocity of meaning.

Front 9

范式

Back 9

[fàn shì]
paradigm

Hint 9

paradigm-as-exemplar fulfils three functions: (i) it suggests new puzzles; (ii) it suggests approaches to solving those puzzles; (iii) it is the standard by which the quality of a proposed puzzle-solution can be measured.

也可译作“规范”，是美国科学哲学家库恩在批判归纳主义与证伪主义观点的基础上提出的新的科学发展模式中的核心概念。库恩在《科学革命的结构》一书中对这一概念做了解释，但对范式的内涵从没做过确切的、定义性的解释。
范式是科学共同体(科学家集团)在某一学科或专业所共同恪守的信念，这种信念规定了他们共同的基本理论、基本观点和基本方法，并为他们提供了共同的理论模型和解决问题的框架，因而形成 一种共同的传统和学科发展的共同方向。

Front 10

Logical positivism’s problems

(Wang Wei)

Back 10

Strict universal propositions could not be verified.
The problem of induction
Dichotomy of “observation-theory”

Dichotomy of “analytic-synthetic”, the real history of science, etc.

Front 11

命题

Back 11

[mìng tí]
Proposition


Ref. Logical positivism

Hint 11

Strict universal propositions could not be verified.

Oxford： Proponents of propositions hold that, speaking strictly, when speakers say the same thing by means of different declarative sentences, there is some (non-linguistic) thing, a proposition, that each has said.
Propositions are thought to perform a number of other functions in addition to being the bearers of truth and falsity and the things expressed by declarative sentences. When a German and English speaker believe the same thing, say that the earth is round, the thing they both believe is not a sentence but a proposition.

知网： 有真假的语句，即通过肯定或否定说明某物存在或不存在的语句。在普通逻辑中，泛指表达判断的语句，即表示对思维对象有所断定的思想的语句。

Front 12

证实

Back 12

[zhèng shí]

Verify/ verification

Hint 12

在实践的基础上用经验方法和逻辑方法对某个理论或命题的真理性的判定。分为直接证实与间接证实。直接证实的对象通常是事实命题(经验知识)，证实方式是将事实命题直接与观察、实验的结果相对照而作出判定。

Front 13

归纳问题

Back 13

inductive problem

Hint 13

Cambridge: First stated by Hume, this problem concerns the logical basis of inferences from observed matters of fact to unobserved matters of fact.
Many twentieth-century philosophers have treated it as a
pseudo-problem, based on linguistic confusion,
that requires dissolution rather than solution. Carnap maintained that inductive intuition is
indispensable. Reichenbach offered a pragmatic
vindication.Goodman has recommended replacing Hume’s “old riddle” with a new riddle of
induction that he has posed. Popper, taking Hume’s skeptical arguments as conclusive, advocates deductivism. He argues that induction is unjustifiable and dispensable. None of the many suggestions is widely accepted as correct.
(1)一般证实的问题：为什么接受某些归纳推理的结论为真是合理的?为什么应用某些归纳推理的规则是合理的? (2)比较的问题：为什么一个归纳结论比另一个受到更好的支持?为什么一条归纳推理的规则比另一条更可信? (3)分析的问题：是什么使得一些归纳推理理性上可接受?决定归纳推理的一条规则比另一条优越的标准是什么?

Front 14

归纳法 / 归纳

Back 14

[guī nà]

induction

Ref. Logical positivism’s problems

Hint 14

同演绎相反，是从个别事 实走向一般的结论、概念的逻辑思维 方法。个性和共性的辩证统一是归纳 法的客观依据。由于共性寓于个性之 中，因而人们能够通过许多个性概括 出共性来。归纳的过程就是从个别到 特殊，从特殊到一般的思维运动。

Front 15

推理

Back 15

inference

Hint 15

推理必须满足两个基本条件：(1)前提是真实的。(2)前提与结论之间的联系是合乎逻辑规则的，即推理形式是正确的、有效的。

Front 16

确证

Back 16

[què zhèng]
confirm-confirmation

Hint 16

是西方著名科学哲学家波普提出的一个重要概念。他认为对一个科学的理论检验的结果有两种情况：(1)通过观察或实验获得的基本陈述如果与理论的推断(预测)不一致，于是理论被证伪;(2)如果与理论的推断相一致，理论的命运又如何呢?

Front 17

确认

Back 17

[quèrèn]
Corroborate-corroboration

Front 18

物理主义

Back 18

[wù lǐ zhǔ yì]

Physicalism


Ref. Logical positivism

Hint 18

Logical positivism
Unity of Science Movement or physicalism

Front 19

Paradigm

Back 19

Symbolic generalizations (language, sometimes inter-defined)
Common believes (e.g. metaphysics or models)
Shared values (e.g. simplicity, consistency)
Exemplars (demonstrative experiments

Hint 19

Examples:
The Phlogiston Theory—Lavoirer’s Oxygen Theory
Particle Theory of Optics—Wave Theory of Optics
Aristotelian physics—Newtonian mechanics
Classical mechanics—Theory of Relativity

Front 20

证伪

Back 20

[zhèng wěi]

Falsification

Ref. Critical Rationalism.

Hint 20

Oxford: Popper explains that "falsifiability (is) his criterion for demarcating science from non-science: if a theory is incompatible with possible empirical observations it is scientific; conversely, a theory which is compatible with all such observations, either because, as in the case of Marxism, it has been modified solely to accommodate such observations, or because, as in the case of psychoanalytic theories, it is consistent with all possible observations, is unscientific.

Front 21

证伪主义

Back 21

[zhèng wěi zhǔ yì]
Falsificationism


Ref. Critical Rationalism

Hint 21

(Popper)
Observation is theory-laden. Against the dichotomy of observation-theory.
Falsifiability: Science could be falsified. The higher falsifiability, the more scientific.

Front 22

Falsificationism

Back 22

Observation is theory-laden. Against the dichotomy of observation-theory.

Hypothetic-deductive method: T→O，¬O∴ ¬T

Falsifiability: Science could be falsified. The higher falsifiability, the more scientific. Unfalsifiable theories are pseudoscience.

Front 23

推测

Back 23

[tuī cè]
conjecture

Front 24

反常

Back 24

[fǎn cháng]

anomaly əˈnɒm(ə)li/

Front 25

形而上学

Back 25

Metaphysics



Ref. Positivism

Hint 25

Positivism
All concepts should be reduced to positive sensations (or observations). Refute metaphysics

Front 26

本体论

Back 26

[běn tǐ lùn]

ontology

Hint 26

As a first approximation, ontology is the study of what there is. Some contest this formulation of what ontology is, so it's only a first approximation. Many classical philosophical problems are problems in ontology: the question whether or not there is a god, or the problem of the existence of universals, etc.

Front 27

科学知识社会学

Back 27

Sociology of Scientific Knowledge, SSK

Hint 27

20世纪70年代中叶，新科学社会学——科学知识社会学诞生于英国爱丁堡大学

Front 28

约定论

Back 28

[yuē dìnglun]
conventionalism

Hint 28

some phenomenon is partly due to our conventions about the meaning or proper use of words.

Front 29

特设性假说

Back 29

[tèshèxìngjiǎshuō]
ad hoc hypothesis hʌɪˈpɒθɪsɪs/

Hint 29

a hypothesis added to a theory in order to save it from being falsified. Ad hoc hypothesizing is compensating for anomalies not anticipated by the theory in its unmodified form.

Front 30

改宗, 改变信仰

Back 30

[gǎi zōng]、
conversion 改变信仰[gǎi zōngxìn yǎng]

Hint 30

In logic, the converse of a categorical or implicational statement is the result of reversing its two parts. For the implication P → Q, the converse is Q → P. For the categorical proposition All S is P, the converse is All P is S.

Front 31

辅助假定 /辅助假说

Back 31

[fǔ zhùanjiǎ dìng] auxiliary assumption/
[fǔ zhùjiǎshuō] auxiliary hypothesis

Hint 31

empirical test of the hypothesis requires one or more background assumptions (also called auxiliary assumptions or auxiliary hypotheses)